Roman Empire Research Articles

Review of S. Maréchal, Bathing at the edge of the Roman Empire. Baths and bathing habits in the north-western corner of continental Europe (The Archaeology of Northern Europe 2), Turnhout: Brepols 2023

Review of S. Maréchal, Bathing at the edge of the Roman Empire. Baths and bathing habits in the north-western corner of continental Europe (The Archaeology of Northern Europe 2), Turnhout: Brepols 2023

Long-Term Settlement Dynamics in Ancient Macedonia: A New Multi-Disciplinary Survey from Grevena (NW Greece)

This paper discusses the evolution of human settlement in ancient Macedonia from the Neolithic to the Late Roman periods, based on the results of a new multi-disciplinary and multi-scale archaeological survey in northern Grevena (NW Greece). Building upon an unpublished (legacy) survey, we developed a GIS-structured workflow that integrates site-revisiting and surveying strategies (material collection and test pits) with multi-temporal remote-sensing analyses, offering analytical information about site distribution, characterisation, dating, and taphonomy. Notably, the new study led to a 64% increase in the number of known sites. The combined results indicate that prehistory is less represented in the surface record than historical periods, likely due to the impact of soil erosion episodes. The Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age saw increased site numbers and the emergence of a settlement structure that characterised the area until the Hellenistic period. During the Roman period, the pattern shifted from a seemingly limited use of the landscape towards a model of more extensive habitation. This was driven by the appearance of new rural sites that introduced a land-use regime designed to support agricultural intensification by implementing anti-erosion measures, such as field terraces.

Versammeln, besprechen, beschließen

Different forms of diets, councils and assemblies shaped the political landscape of late medieval and early modern Europe, and especially the Holy Roman Empire. Princes and clerics, the representatives of towns and of monasteries came together in various constellations to discuss problems, adopt decisions and perform rituals. It has been repeatedly suggested that it might be fruitful to compare these different forms of assemblies. The actual attempts to do so, however, often remain unsatisfactory even to their own authors. What is still required is a systematic comparison in the hope of creating a typology of assemblies. At a summer school held in Lübeck in 2019, some initial ideas were put forward on how to undertake such an staggering endeavor. A catalogue of criteria for comparing different forms of assemblies would need to include how often they were convened, who their participants were (both by number and status), what issues were discussed (their content and intended scope), what procedures were obtained for discussion and decision-making, how they interrelated with other types of assemblies, what the aim of the meeting was and how it was attained. These criteria can also help one to grasp how one type of assembly changed over time. An initial comparison led to the conclusion that the different forms of meetings may have assembled a different set of participants and discussed different issues, yet they employed strikingly similar procedures and underwent a similar process of institutionalization.

The fall of the Western Roman Empire in the assessments of Soviet Antiquity in the 1970s and 1980s.

The study of new approaches to the interpretation of the theory of social revolution in relation to the fall of the Western Roman Empire after breaking the deadlock of the "slave revolution" serves as the basis for continuing scientific research on this problem in Russian antiquity. Methods. The content of the article was formed by a comparative review of the conclusions of historians who proposed new theoretical conclusions based on Marxist methodology in the period from the 1970s to the turn of the 1980s – early 1990s – V. I. Kuzishchin, E. M. Shtaerman, A. R. Korsunsky, R. Gunter. Results. Recognizing the transition to feudalism of the social revolution with a number of features and using the concept of "proto-feudal way of life", the authors differed in their assessment of how mature the prerequisites for the emergence of the feudal mode of production in the economy of Late Rome were. E. M. Shtaerman found them in the development of large extraurban magnate land ownership in the western provinces. In the assessments of A. R. Korsunsky and R. Gunther, the relations of exploitation of colonies did not turn into developed feudal relations. Therefore, if in the assessment of V. I. Kuzishchin and E. M. If the classes and strata of the emerging feudalizing way of life were recognized as the driving force of the social revolution, then according to A. R. Korsunsky and R. Gunther, this revolution developed only since the time of the barbarian kingdoms of the V–VII centuries, with which V. I. Kuzishchin subsequently agreed. Discussion of the results. By the end of the 1980s, the approach of V. I. Kuzishchin and E. M. Shtaerman was recognized as the leading one. But both concepts did not receive further development based on the material of the sources. Conclusion. The continuation of theoretical generalizations on the topic of the fall of the Western Roman Empire remains especially important against the background of innovations in foreign literature, which abandoned the "theory of collapse" of antiquity and switched to the point of view of its long rebirth in the III–VII centuries. Введение. Изучение новых подходов к толкованию теории социальной революции применительно к падению Западной Римской империи после выхода из тупика «революции рабов» служит основой к продолжению научных поисков по этой проблеме в российском антиковедении. Методы. Содержание статьи сложилось путем сравнительного обзора выводов историков, предложивших в отрезке времени от 1970-х гг. и до рубежа 1980-х – начала 1990-х гг. новые теоретические выводы на базе марксистской методологии – В. И. Кузищина, Е. М. Штаерман, А. Р. Корсунского, Р. Гюнтера. Результаты. Признавая переход к феодализму социальной революцией с рядом особенностей и используя понятие «протофеодальный уклад», авторы разошлись в оценке того, насколько зрелыми были предпосылки к возникновению феодального способа производства в экономике Позднего Рима. Е. М. Штаерман находила их в развитии крупного внегородского магнатского землевладения в западных провинциях. В оценках А. Р. Корсунского и Р. Гюнтера отношения эксплуатации колонов не превратились в развитые феодальные отношения. Поэтому если в оценке В. И. Кузищина и Е. М. Штаерман движущей силой социальной революции признавались классы и слои складывающегося феодализирующегося уклада, то по А. Р. Корсунскому и Р. Гюнтеру эта революция развивалась только со времени варварских королевств V–VII вв., с чем впоследствии согласился В. И. Кузищин. Обсуждение результатов. К концу 1980-х гг. подход В. И. Кузищина и Е. М. Штаерман был признан как ведущий. Но обе концепции не получили дальнейшей разработки на материале источников. Заключение. Продолжение теоретических обобщений по теме падения Западной Римской империи остается особо важным на фоне новаций зарубежной литературы, отказавшейся от «теории краха» античности и переходящей на точку зрения о ее длительном перерождении в III–VII вв.

On the Origins of the Gothic Leader Alaric: Between Claudian and Zosimus

Alaric has often been seen as the leader of the Visigothic people, from 395 to his death in 410. Before his rebellion against the Roman Empire in 395, he served in the Roman military, participating in the campaign against Eugenius and Arbogast in 394. His early career is mentioned in the work of the historian Zosimus. But his background is shrouded in mystery. In the middle of the 6th century, Jordanes wrote about his noble origin and the Visigothic dynasty of Balthi. This has led some historians to look for Alaric’s origins among the chieftains and nobility of the Gothic tribe of the Thervingi. Among contemporary authors, only the verses of the poet Claudian mention Alaric’s birth. This article explores the possibilities of Alaric’s origin and the internal policies of the Goths living in Roman territory. Most likely, the person of Alaric was more closely associated with the Roman army than is usually thought.

Levantine wines in Italy between the Early Empire and Late Antiquity

The aim of this paper is to investigate the patterns of importations of Levantine wines to Italy between the Early Empire and Late Antiquity. It concentrates on quantities of Levantine amphoras discovered in terrestrial contexts in Rome, Ostia, Campania and the North Adriatic part of Italy. This data is compared with published discoveries from other parts of Italy and the Roman Mediterranean, including finds from shipwrecks. Regression analyses is used in order to compare distribution patterns of Levantine amphoras in the Mediterranean (Rome, North Adriatic Italy, Spain, Gaul, Ephesus and Cyprus) during the Principate and Late Antiquity. The results of this study show that Levantine wines, and in particular Gazan varieties, became much more popular in the Later Roman and Early Byzantine periods than they had been during the first centuries of the Empire. Several explanations of this phenomenon are considered, including climate change and technological development in the Levant, as well as a structural transformation of the Roman economy.

Through the history of the acoustic response within the theatre of Taormina: From Greek and Roman periods to our days

The ancient theatre of Taormina is considered one of the most beautiful attractions of this town. Built on top of a cliff over the Mediterranean Sea, the spectators remain captured by the suggestions that this performance arts space can still inspire. Finished to be erected in the 3rd century BC, the theatre in Hellenistic period was provided with a small temple on the top centre of the cavea. Modified by Romans based on their requirements for spectacles, the organization of this ancient theatre was amplified with the creation of a double porticus supported by a columnade, and with the extension of the scenic building. After its desuse, some construction elements of the theatre were utilized to build new structures in town, provoking significant damage to the original shape. The spectacles that nowadays are conducted within the ancient theatre are many, executed especially over summer seasons. Acoustic measurements have been carried out inside the theatre to understand the acoustic response of the existing conditions. Starting from this scenario, the values of the main acoustic parameters have been compared with the digital reconstruction of the building at the Greek and Roman period. This research study highlights the difference in the acoustic response between these two scenarios and the existing conditions, and how the acoustics during the Roman period was the most suitable for musical performances.

A Unique Assemblage of Roman Handmade/Slow Wheel-Made Pottery at Tamuda (Tetouan, Morocco): Provenance, Production Technology, and Archaeological Implications

Abstract A study of a 2nd century AD assemblage of handmade/slow wheel-made cooking wares, found at the Roman settlement of Tamuda (Tetouan, Morocco) is presented. Such ceramics are rare in Early-Middle Roman Imperial contexts of the western Mediterranean. A combined typological and archaeometric approach – including petrographic, mineralogical, and chemical analyses – was carried out to study this assemblage, aiming to examine the hypothesis of a local or regional provenance and to shed light on its production technology. The results indicate the existence of a diversity of products, including a fabric that was likely locally manufactured, as well as other imported fabrics that point to micro-regional distribution or trade of some of these wares. This research is a significant contribution towards a better understanding of the handmade/slow wheel-made pottery that was produced and consumed in the northern Moroccan Rif in the Roman period.

Grinding Installations in Pre- and Protohistoric Eurasia

The paper investigates grinding installations found across diverse archaeological sites in Eurasia, spanning from the Neolithic (10000-8800 BCE) to the Early Roman period (2nd century BC) in regions such as Georgia, Bulgaria, Turkey, Israel, and Moldova. The study employs typological, traceological, experimental and comparative analyses. A significant focus is on the interdisciplinary examination of an installation at Grakliani Gora, representing the first comprehensive study within Georgia’s territory. This study aims to fill knowledge gaps regarding the origin, types, and functions of grinding installations found at archaeological sites like Gesher, Ulucak H.yük, Varvarovka VIII, Branzeni III, Kodzadermen, Liga, Ilipinar, Shiqmim, Tel Rehov, Grakliani Gora, Tsikhiagora, and Dedoplis Gora. Notable shared characteristics include indoor placement, using clay in platform construction, surrounding walls to contain scattered flour and the incorporation of side recesses for the material being ground or the produced flour. These installations were constructed to enhance the efficacy of working devices, increase flour yield, and minimize physical strain during daily activities.

‘Were Not Our Hearts Burning Within Us?’ (Luke 24:32): Dysregulated Passions, Righteous Fervour and an Emotional Regime Change in the Roman Empire

‘Were Not Our Hearts Burning Within Us?’ (Luke 24:32): Dysregulated Passions, Righteous Fervour and an Emotional Regime Change in the Roman Empire

Limes (the Roman Frontier): Developing a Video Game for History Learning

The use of gaming technologies in education holds great promise to provide engaging learning experiences. Whereas video games have been successfully used to foster learning in several school subjects, the current understanding of the potential of video games for history learning is still limited. This paper details the development of Limes, a 2D top-down educational game created in Unity and rendered in pixel art. The game targets 5th/6th grade secondary school students and is set in the third century AD in southern Germany, a period characterized by political and social instabilities. Limes digs into the complex relations between the Roman Empire and the Alemanni tribe, one of the most powerful Germanic tribes of this period. The player can experience this pixelated world through the eyes of an Alemanni child, who forms a friendship with a Roman centurion. The unfolding narrative places the young protagonist in the precarious balance of peace and conflict, and the player needs to navigate the diplomatic tensions of the era. The gameplay consists of five levels, including primary missions and optional secondary missions which unlock special features (e.g., puzzles, quizzes). Limes incorporates a variety of game mechanics, ranging from running and interacting with characters to stealth missions, throwing rocks, and horse racing. These dynamics are integrated into the historical narrative of the game, enriching the player's experience. The game development process combined insights and methods from multiple disciplines, including game-based learning, educational, social, and cultural psychology, education sciences and pedagogy, and history education. Moreover, the game capitalizes on Unity’s wide array of development tools, which provide extensive customization possibilities, and employs pixel art, facilitating an engaging environment while maintaining a cost-conscious development process. Initial tests and expert feedback highlight the promise of Limes as a game that leverages historical accuracy and innovative educational tools to foster a deeper understanding of Roman history. Next steps include empirical studies with students to test the game's effectiveness (e.g., in improving interest in and knowledge of Roman history).

The Conquest of Italy by the Ostrogoths in 488–493 ad as a Formal Restoration of the Power of the Eastern Roman Empire

The topic of Theodoric's campaign and its connection to the interests of Constantinople remains relevant and vital. Studying this topic helps provide a better understanding of geopolitical processes, the influence of the Eastern Roman Empire on the West, the political and legal aspects of the interaction between different regions of the empire, and the influence of "barbarian" peoples on the formation of medieval Europe. The focus is on studying the political, legal and geopolitical aspects of this transition period from antiquity to the Middle Ages. The paper academic deals with the legal characterisation of the Ostrogothic conquest of Italy at the end of the V century. The primary sources and different historiographical schools are analysed; the specifics of political and legal relations between the Roman Empire and the federate kings (commanders) are investigated. The personality of the Ostrogothic king Theodoric the Amal, who in 483 received the status of magister militum (commander-in-chief) and consul of the Roman Empire, is at the centre of attention

Representations of Music and the Dance in Late Roman Art

Music and the dance are an important theme represented in various artistic media of the Late Roman and Early Byzantine periods, including mosaic pavements and decorative arts such as silver metalwork, woven textiles, and carved ivories. A popular aspect of this theme is imagery of the Dionysiac thiasos, with members of the wine god’s entourage making merry by dancing and sounding crotala or cymbal tongs, as we see in a fragmentary mosaic from the House of the Dionysiac Thiasos at Augusta Traiana – Beroe. A similar effect occurs in either an expanded or a somewhat reduced format in pavements from Argos and Madaba. Besides mosaics, this subject also appears on Late Antique silver plate made for display, such as objects in the Mildenhall Treasure from Roman Britain and related works. Coptic textiles used to ornament private houses as colorful wall hangings feature lively dancers and musicians, and these figures may or may not have a mythological identity. Other non-mythological representations of music and the dance appeared in domestic and public settings. An outstanding example is the well-preserved Mosaic of Female Musicians that decorated a house in Mariamin, Syria, and that assembles an impressive group of instrumentalists and a dancer. One observes a pipe organ (hydraulis) along with a cithara, an aulos, and an acetabulum, consisting of a series of metal bowls struck with a baton. Elsewhere there are depicted a pantomime performance with an organ accompaniment, visible in a mosaic from Noheda, Spain, as well as music-making and dancing in the context of the circus. The latter subject appears on a consular diptych, and on the base of the Obelisk of Theodosius in Constantinople. We finally note that the pipe organ was later adopted for use in the church liturgy, reflected in an illustration in the Utrecht Psalter of 9th-century date. If the latter work of art is a copy of a Late Antique manuscript, as some scholars believe, then the pipe organ’s adoption for Christian ceremonial practice should be dated earlier than originally thought.

The Educational Policy of Julian the Apostate

Julian the Apostate, the last pagan ruler of the Roman Empire has left a rich correspondence, the content of which is extremely varied. The epistles, most of which are authentic, form a separate volume in the editions and can be divided into four groups. The first group consists of the so-called Gallic letters, the second group includes the letters of Illyria and Constantinople, the letters from Asia Minor form the third group. Finally, the letters written from Antioch complete the list. In the following, we will discuss the School Edict and more particularly the letter that accompanies it (Ep. 61 Bidez – second group of letters). The decree of the Codex Theodosianus, dated 17 June 362, was rather short-lived, being in force only from July 362 to 11 January 364, but it is nevertheless an outstanding document of ancient educational history since no other emperor had previously issued similar regulations on the operation of teachers. Alongside this decree we may place the edict associated with Justinian (Cod. Just. I,5,18,4; I,11,10,2), which, conversely, forbids the pagan rhetors from education, but in the sixth century no one attempted to criticise it.

Landscapes of production, production of meaning: Salt infrastructure and environmental history in imperial Rome and Han China

I investigate the material characteristics and spatial contexts of saltpans in two of antiquity’s most successful empires—Rome and Han China. Production strategies made salt widely available but were distinct in their form and appearance, as well as process. Rome’s infrastructure was less visually imposing and environmentally disruptive compared to the Han installations, which were made to stand out and overtake natural contexts. Born from its sites of production, salt had a different social role and political value in these empires.

J. A. North (Ed.), The Religious History of the Roman Empire. The Republican Centuries. Oxford, Oxford University Press 2023

J. A. North (Ed.), The Religious History of the Roman Empire. The Republican Centuries. Oxford, Oxford University Press 2023

Guest Editorial: Turning Old Data Into New Insights for Better Outcomes

_ I recently read about an archeological study at Interamna Lirenas, central Italy, where a very ordinary Roman settlement; thought to be unpromising, ‘a failed backwater,’ revealed new discoveries that have forced historians to rethink what they believed to be true about the final years of the Roman Empire. The study revealed a town that was thriving for centuries after Roman Italy was thought to have been in decline. The study’s author and project lead said, “There was nothing on the surface, no visible evidence of buildings, just bits of broken pottery. But what we discovered wasn’t a backwater, far from it. We found a thriving town adapting to every challenge thrown at it for 900 years.” The project lead goes on to say that many other average Roman towns in Italy were just as resilient, “It’s just that archaeologists have only recently begun to apply the right techniques and approaches to see this.” The story reminded me of the enormous variety and volume of historic data that’s been inaccessible for decades in our industry, trapping knowledge and insights of enormous value. This data is old, but it’s not out of date. In truth, it’s a nice problem to have. If we apply new techniques, we can open a world of new information about an asset, operation, or enterprise. The data includes commercial field development planning, well logs, drilling reports, consulting, unstructured data reports—all the things that combine with the structured technical information that we get from surveys and planning activities. This treasure trove of data is untapped due to various reasons—outdated infrastructure, fragmented systems, storage in filing cabinets, siloed databases, and forgotten spreadsheets … bits of broken pottery, if you will. Often, it’s used once and then never referenced again. Organizations are wrestling with the challenge of bringing this old data into their business. They need to be able to look at the information, to recognize what it is, know what it means, where it should be filed away. They need to be able to bring it together with other relevant information and contextualize it. The end goal is to have it available when people come to act, to make decisions. For this, it must be reliable, trusted, and discoverable—and at their fingertips. By the time it reaches people, or artificial intelligence (AI), it must be ready to use. Connecting Data One challenge companies face is the mechanical issue of connecting the data—getting it out of these siloed and fragmented systems—and into a system where it can be parsed and understood. Thankfully, in recent years a swathe of good technology products for achieving this at scale have been developed. Data archaeology in our industry is now a realistic prospect.

Hellenistic Period Watchtowers and Hillside Settlements Identified in “Vezirköprü” Surveys

Vezirköprü, one of the largest districts of Samsun (Amisos), an important port city of the Black Sea, has been the scene of continuous settlement from the Eneolithic Period to the present day thanks to its fertile soils, rivers and its location on an important road. The district, which first appears as a village settlement under the name Phazemon in Strabo, became a city in the Roman Period and was named Neoklaudiopolis. The city called Andrapa in the Byzantine Period took the name Vezirköprü in the Turkish Period and has survived to the present day. The city has witnessed many struggles in this process, including the struggle of the Pontic Kingdom and the Roman Empire. The greatest witnesses of these events were undoubtedly castles and watchtowers. The most famous of these is the Sagylion Castle, localized to Büyükkale in Vezirköprü, which is also mentioned in Strabo. Located on the foothills of Tavşan Mountain, the castle appears to be a typical Mithradates castle due to its location and structures. Although these fortresses built in the region were one of the greatest weapons used by Mithradates Eupator VI against the expansionist policies of the Romans, it is understood that these fortresses were not used on their own but supported by watchtowers selected at the dominant points of the land. Although many fortresses in the Pontos Region have been researched, and some have been excavated, watchtowers have not been sufficiently investigated. This study aimed to shed light on the Hellenistic Period of Vezirköprü by introducing the watchtowers identified during the surveys and the hillside settlements built around them.

Technical examination, elemental analysis and conservation of the arm of a colossal bronze statue from Aegion at the conservation laboratories of the National Archaeological Museum at Athens

The bronze arm, belonging to a colossal statue (presented by A. G. Vordos in this volume), was examined at the Chemical-Physical Research & Archaeometry Laboratory of the National Archaeological Museum (NAM) in Athens. According to prevailing methodology the examination comprised: macroscopic, microscopic and endoscopic examination, elemental analysis p-XRF, X-ray radiography, recording of ancient repairs. It is assumed that the arm was manufactured by the indirect lost wax casting technique and was found to contain an enormous amount of lead (av. 40.15 %), a fact that dates it to the late Hellenistic or Roman period. The arm was consequently conserved at the Metal Conservation Laboratory of the NAM and it has now been returned to the Ephorate of Antiquities of Achaia in Patras

Climate-driven versus anthropogenic induced erosion of the last 3000 years from an ancient lake in the Southern Phokis Plain (Desfina), Greece

The timing and causes for erosional events at the Kastrouli (Greece) archeological site – a Late Myceneaen with reuse in later periods – are presented. Two borehole sediment cores (max 6 m depth), collected from the footsteps of the settlement hill plain, were studied. Sedimentary analysis and luminescence dating techniques investigate and identify periods of soil aggradation in this record. Moreover, optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating confirmed the concept of an ancient lake during Kastrouli settlement times. Macroscopic overview of the stratigraphic structure for each core, included lithological and textural evaluation of the core sediments, assessments of grain size, and determination of the geochemical and mineralogical composition of the sediments. X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), and Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) techniques were applied for the mineralogical and geochemical analysis. OSL ages from seven sediment horizons spanned from the Ottoman period to archaic times. All lithological findings correlate with the results of the electrical tomography survey conducted in same area. Extrapolation of the Logarithmic fitting of the data back in time of prehistoric Late Mycenaean era of Kastrouli verifies a lake deeper than 10 m, with a considerable enhancement in soil aggradation of 1.2 cm/year. Attempts to dry out the area are evidenced by the hydraulic works found in two engineering sinkholes. Sedimentation changes had occurred in the local environment over the last 2500 years, and soil aggradation underwent significant fluctuations in the two studied cores. The Roman period (a wet period) and the Byzantine period experienced high aggradation rates. By contrast, soil aggradation rates in southern Phokis (Kastrouli region) have remained exceedingly low from the Ottoman era (circa 13th century) to the present. In the context of the Phokis case study, it appears that the sedimentation rates, driven by climate, have strengthened anthropogenic activities.