Roman Empire Research Articles

Historical outline of the development of the principle of good faith in civil procedure in Germany and France

The article analyzes the concept of good faith on the example of its development in civil proceedings in Germany and France. The author traces the relationship between the good faith of Roman civil procedure and the good faith of continental European countries, which was developed through the reception of Roman law. he author examines a number of sources of the so-called barbarian law in the context of good faith and its negative manifestation - bad faith in procedural communication and counteraction thereto. The author defines good faith as a condition for proper procedural behavior in the sources of law of the Holy Roman Empire of the Germanic nation and traces the history of the term Treu und Glauben. The author examines the concepts of correlation between the Roman term bona fides and the German term Treu und Glauben, which has become a general principle of various branches of law, including civil procedure law. The author examines the presence of the good faith principle in the modern German Code of Civil Procedure. The author also analyzes the concept of the formation of the principle of good faith in civil proceedings in France, for which purpose the medieval rules of customary law contained in such legal sources as the Coutumes Beauvais are studied. Special attention is paid to an important source of French procedural law of modern times - the Ordinance of Louis XIV of 1667 (Louis Code), which was the basis for the Civil Procedure Code of Napoleon of 1806 and whose provisions contained measures to counteract the abuse of procedural rights, and in some cases the term good faith as a measure of exemplary procedural communication. The author also reviews the provisions of the current French Code of Civil Procedure, which entered into force on January 1, 1976, where the principle of good faith is applied both as a counteraction to unfair procedural behavior and as a standard of procedural behavior which provides for the proper performance of duties and exercise of rights. The author determines that the principle of good faith is primarily found in substantive law, both in Germany and France, from where it is integrated into procedural law.

Towards a Study of the Architectural Decoration of Public Buildings in Parion During the Early Roman Empire

Parion was one of the principal centers of the Roman province of Asia, and the remains of several public buildings adorned with intricate architectural decorations have been uncovered and partially explored. Among these structures are a theater, an odeon, and thermae, all dating to the Roman Empire. In addition to these edifices, other public buildings in the central part of Roman-era Parion remain undiscovered, raising im-portant questions about the organization of public space and the architectural character of the city’s core during the Early Empire. One of the most promising areas for further exploration is the “Agora” sector, bordered to the south by the odeon and to the north by the theater and thermae. This article offers an architectural and histori-cal analysis of the Corinthian order details found in this sector. The architectural elements discussed were un-covered during archaeological excavations conducted between 2015 and 2022 (Figs. 1-6). Although the availa-ble materials are insufficient to definitively identify the specific structures to which these decorative elements belonged, their forms, ornamentation, dimensions, and modules exhibit notable similarities to the architectural details of the southern façade of Hadrian’s Gate in Ephesus. This resemblance suggests a commonality in their architectural compositions and, by extension, the types of structures they adorned. Consequently, it is plausible to infer that these architectural elements were part of a portico associated with a building complex in the Agora. The design of this complex (or at least part of it) likely reflects Hadrian’s extensive building program in the Ro-man province of Asia.

Environmental Archaeology of an Urban Defensive Area at the Time of the Roman Conquest: New Insights from a Hilltop Pond in Lugdunum (Lyon, France)

ABSTRACT This study shows how fine and organic sediments in urban contexts can document landscape changes, anthropogenic activities and depositional processes. We focus on the transition between the late Iron Age and the Roman period in the city of Lyon (France), where an archaeological excavation conducted on Fourvière Hill aimed at understanding the evolution of a defensive site located south-west of the former Roman city. The discovery of a Gallic wall made of earth, wood and stone (murus gallicus) probably indicates the oppidum status of Lyon before the Roman colonisation. Fine-textured, organic and hydromorphic sediments containing a variety of artefacts (fine wares and amphora fragments) and abundant palaeoecological indicators (seeds, fruits, wood and charcoal fragments, pollen, shells, and parasites), were preserved at the foot of the rampart. A multidisciplinary study of these remains reveals the presence of a former hilltop pond surrounded by riparian woodlands with multi-proxy evidence of arable land or gardens, discharge from human settlements (consumption wastes, human parasites), and grazed areas (faecal inputs, animal parasites and plants tolerant to trampling). After several episodes of sediment inputs and backfill, the palaeoenvironmental record ended at the beginning of the Roman Empire, when a defensive wall was built over the site.

Power and Authority, A Trial of Two Swords: A History of the Union of the Holy Roman Empire and the Kingdom of Sicily (1186–1250), By Willem J. Zwalve

Power and Authority, A Trial of Two Swords: A History of the Union of the Holy Roman Empire and the Kingdom of Sicily (1186–1250), By Willem J. Zwalve

Tracing the Process of Rome's Expansion in Anatolia

As a result of Rome's nearly 60-year-long struggle that wore out the state, the Republican administration ended with Augustus. With this new system, large lands will now be governed by a single administrator. This new system brought the imperial structure to solve the problems of Rome. After Rome established a political authority and power in the Italian geography, a Roman-Italian union was established here. The policy followed by Rome this time in order to achieve the desired area of dominance was to explore areas of expansion outside Italy. As of the Roman period, it underwent changes in its area of expansion along with the changes in political structures and orders. In this context, it expanded its distribution area towards Anatolia. During the period when this expansion area took place, Rome experienced great struggles both externally and internally. Our study topic, "The Process of the Spread of Rome in Anatolia", contains cases and impressions that cannot be repeated due to the time period it covers. For this reason, criteria such as the content of the study, its field, and the time period to be researched are not suitable for quantitative research methods. Therefore, document analysis, one of the qualitative research methods that is thought to be more amenable to the criteria of the study, constitutes the method of the study. With this method, it was tried to reach various sources and documents about the policy followed by Rome in Anatolia and draw meaningful inferences from them.

City and Countryside in Byzantine Anatolia: Amorium

Amorium is a key site for the period AD 700-900 owing to its historical importance as the capital of the Anatolic Theme. The well preserved remains provide an exceptional opportunity to study the layout and function of the Byzantine city and its excavation sheds light on the transition, modification, and continuity of the settlement between the Late Roman and Byzantine periods. The evidence from twenty years of excavation points to the existence of a large and prosperous city during Early and Middle Byzantine times, where various trades and crafts were practised and which served as the centre of a vibrant rural community engaged in agriculture as well as animal husbandry. The destruction layers from the capture of Amorium by the Arabs in 838 create a fixed horizon and reference point for the entire archaeology and material culture of early to mid-ninth century Anatolia. Pottery and coin finds in particular provide good indicators of the level and nature of economic activity. In this study some conclusions are drawn from that material, and discussion of it is set in the context of other sites and the interpretation of finds there. The evidence from Amorium presents new insights that appear at odds with accepted views of the Byzantine world in the Early Middle Ages.

RELIEF SCULPTURE OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS FROM ANCIENT GERASA: A COMPARATIVE STUDY

GERASA, in north Jordan, dating to the Roman period, has been found to contain impressive and well - Musicians and Musical instruments carving on architecture elements (pedestal or candelabrum base). The Gerasa carving expertly combined motifs with a long tradition, some going back to the Roman imperial age and earlier. This study is concerned with the musical instruments appear on architecture elements. The article provides a study of the musical instruments that can be classified into two main types: Aulos and Kithara. Purpose of this paper is to examine the details of those instruments and compare them with other musical instruments from the Roman period, where influences in design within and between regions can be seen. Wherever possible, comparative examples have been chosen from sites that are relatively nearby to establish an overview of musical instruments in the region, but also to distinguish the influences coming from Asia Minor and other areas.

Königliche Friedensstiftung und Konsens

Abstract The paper deals with the instruments the king of the Holy Roman Empire used to settle disputes between the princes and to create a consensus between the parties involved, as well as the king’s efforts to integrate the other princes into the solution. The focus lies on the period between 1150 and 1300, when the rulers were not only concerned with individual conflicts, but by means of the so called ‘Landfrieden’ fundamentally started to limit and sanction the use of violence and to develop court proceedings as the norm in settling disputes. If these proceedings based on consensus gained or lost significance, is the central question of the paper, which is explored by using two case studies. These are Frederick Barbarossa’s efforts to settle the conflict between Henry the Lion and Henry Jasomirgott and Rudolf of Habsburg’s endeavours to resolve the conflicts between the Landgrave of Thuringia and his relatives. On the one hand, the investigation of these case studies shows that the ‘Landfrieden’ moved from the end of the conflict settlement to its beginning and that the kings hardly sought the consensus of the other princes in their search for agreement between the parties involved in the dispute.

For Memoria Aeterna: Approaches to Immortality in Memory in Ancient Roman Funerary Monuments

When facing death, Ancient Romans attempted to achieve immortality through eternal memory. While the elites sought great achievements as invisible monuments, the non-elite Roman population depended on their tombs to preserve their identity and memory. By analyzing funerary monuments of the non-elite from the Late Republic to the first two centuries of the Roman Empire, this essay explores how their textual and visual components construct images that define and idealize the memory of individuals. The essay also investigates how these elements interact with the living to preserve and strengthen the memories of the dead: by connecting with family and friends from the private sphere in their regular visits as well as luring and informing strangers passing by from the public world. Finally, the essay sheds light on how the most important Roman festival for the dead, Parentalia, provided opportunities to appeal to both types of audiences in the preservation of memory.

Domestic and Productive Earthen Architecture Conserved In Situ in Archaeological Sites of the Iberian Peninsula

For past societies on the Iberian Peninsula, one of the most prolific architectures was earthen construction, with a wealth of typologies and solutions derived from the legacy of local construction and materials. However, its study within the field of archaeology has been limited. The challenges posed by conservation, archaeological identification and social recognition have traditionally limited the dissemination of this type of architecture. Its low profile is perceived as fragile once the original protections collapse. The ethnological information preserved and linked to past ways of life and societies is crucial to the interpretation of the cultural development handed down over generations by different communities and now transmitted to the general public through archaeological sites. This research aims to provide an overview of the main earthen vestiges from domestic, productive and funerary architecture dating from the prehistoric, protohistoric, Roman and medieval periods. For this, a bibliographical review and data collection through fieldwork were conducted for numerous case studies. These included the classification of materials, compositions and construction techniques, creating an integrated comprehensive database with information on geography, measurements and the general state of conservation.

Venom: A Promising Avenue for Antimicrobial Therapeutics.

Venom in medicine is well documented in the chronicles of ancient Greece and the Roman Empire and persisted into the Renaissance and even into the modern era. Venoms were not always associated with detrimental consequences. Since ancient times, the curative capacity of venom has been recognized, portraying venom as a metaphor for pharmacy and medicine. Venom proteins and peptides' antimicrobial potential has not undergone systematic exploration despite the huge literature on natural antimicrobials. In light of the escalating challenge of antimicrobial resistance and the diminishing effectiveness of antibiotics, there is a pressing need for innovative antimicrobials capable of effectively addressing illnesses caused by multidrug-resistant microorganisms. This review adds to our understanding of the effectiveness of different venom components against a host of pathogenic microorganisms. The aim is to illuminate the various antimicrobials present in venom and venom peptides, thereby emphasizing the unexplored medicinal potential for antimicrobial properties. We have presented a concise summary of the molecular examination of the venom peptides' functioning processes, as well as the current clinical and preclinical progress of venom antimicrobial peptides.

Nicholas of Cusa’s Idea of a “Just War”

Although Nicholas of Cusa (1401–1464) does not explicitly speak about “just war” in his writings, the third book of his most important political work, The Catholic Concordance (De Concordantia Catholica), contains several text passages on feuds that reveal his idea of a “just war.” As a doctor of canon law, Cusanus rejected all kinds of feuds which often led to private wars among nobles. He saw the rampant feuds as a major reason for the decline and destabilization of the Holy Roman Empire. His idea of a “just war” is influenced primarily by many canonistic and moral-theological writings, especially the ideas of Thomas Aquinas in his Summa Theologiae. For Nicholas of Cusa war and violence are only justified under certain circumstances: if they are authorized by the emperor as supreme ruler or by the imperial courts, when there is a just cause, such as defence against external and internal enemies, and when they are done with the right intention, such as the restoration of peace.

Bibliometric Analysis of Constantinople Studies Through Voswiever

This study aims to map the studies on the concept of Constantinople. Within the scope of quantitative data, the study aims to provide researchers with a systematic summary of the existing literature on Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire for about 11 centuries, using bibliometric analysis, and to identify trends and gaps in the study of Constantinople. The unit of analysis is based on the bibliometric data of different types of works scanned in the Web of Science database and published between 1975 and 2024. When examining the distribution of 1939 works on this subject according to the years of publication, the highest concentrations are observed in 2021 (144 works), 2022 (130 works), and 2019 (107 works). The authors who published the most works are Alessandra Bravi (13 works), Judith Herrin (13 works), and Sofia Kotzabassi (10 works). The predominant types of publications are journal articles (1280), book reviews (463), and book chapters (213). In terms of research fields, History (1018), Medieval Studies (733), Art (166), Archaeology (137), and Area/Regional Studies (65) are the most represented. Regarding the distribution of publications by country, the USA (258), Russia (197), and the UK (1377) are the leading publishers. The majority of works were published in English (1067), Russian (269), and French (184). The primary indexing databases include AHCI (1033), ESCI (581), and SSCI (122). The most frequently used keywords in publications on Constantinople include Byzantium (416 repetitions), Roman Empire (127 repetitions), Old Russian (70 repetitions), and Kemalism (58 repetitions).

Unsuccessful Peace-making: the Mission of Francesco da Collo and Antonio de Conti to Moscow (1518-1519)

This article explores the peace mission of Francesco da Collo and Antonio de Conti, envoys of Emperor Maximilian I of the Holy Roman Empire, to Grand Prince Vasily III of Moscow in 1518–1519. The mission aimed to mediate between Moscow and the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth, seeking to align both states for a planned united Christian campaign against the Ottoman Empire, whose expansion in Southeastern Europe posed a serious threat. The study centers on da Collo’s report from the mission, which not only chronicles the negotiations but also provides rare insights into Russian diplomacy and courtly traditions of the early 16th century. The article underscores the critical role of ceremonial practices, such as receptions, banquets, and hunts, in the diplomatic culture of the period.Particular focus is given to da Collo's accounts of his interactions with Vasily III and his entourage, highlighting the crucial importance of personal meetings and informal contacts in the diplomatic process of the time. Despite the envoys' efforts, the mission achieved only a temporary one-year truce, with insurmountable barriers to a comprehensive peace including territorial disputes—especially over the control of Smolensk—and the issue of repatriating Russian prisoners of war from Poland.Furthermore, da Collo’s report serves as an early illustration of how Muscovy was constructed as an eastern, despotic power, offering one of the first examples of Russia being depicted as the “Other” in early modern European thought. The study sheds light on the complex dynamics of diplomacy in this era and reveals how these interactions contributed to the broader European perception of Russia as an alien and adversarial state.

Take a handful of nuts in a bowl! Turned wooden vessel with hazelnuts from Czarnówko against the background of other finds from cemeteries of the Wielbark culture

Abstract In 2009, during research of a cemetery of the Wielbark culture in Czarnówko (Lębork District, Pomerania), an inhumation grave was discovered, which contained the remains of a wooden bowl with copper alloy fittings. Inside it, several hazelnuts were preserved. This vessel, in the light of the analysis carried out, was made of alder wood using a turning technique. Discoveries of this type are not only rare in the area of the Wielbark culture, but also in the rest of Central European Barbaricum. This article presents the results of the archaeobotanical research and demonstrates the bowl in the broader context of Roman Period discoveries.

Bronze Age to Roman period salt production in the coastal areas of peninsular Italy: Palaeoenvironments, production methods and archaeological evidence

The landscape characteristics and salt production methods along the coasts of peninsular Italy from the Bronze Age to the Roman period are examined, with a focus on the significance of marine salt for Italy's ancient food economy, given the limited availability of rock salt. Two main methods of marine salt production are highlighted. Briquetage involves using clay or pottery containers to evaporate seawater, which requires specific environmental conditions such as clay availability and significant human labour and technological skill. Conversely, salterns consist of creating shallow ponds or pools for seawater evaporation, demanding flat coastal areas, a stable climate, and controlled seawater flow. While this method is less labour-intensive, it requires substantial initial infrastructure.The potential for salt production in Italy's coastal palaeoenvironments using either method has been evaluated. Key factors include coastal geomorphology, climate stability, and access to raw materials. This environmental data supports an analysis of archaeological remains from salt production sites active from the Bronze Age to the Roman period. The assessment focuses on the material evidence such as clay containers from briquetage and structural remains of salterns, aiming to understand the spatial and temporal distribution of these sites.The discussion also explores the geopolitical implications of salt production, examining how the distribution and development of these sites were affected by broader geopolitical shifts in Italy, including the impact of (proto)urbanization on the expansion and adaptation of salt production practices.

ROMANS AT BESA: NEW LIGHT ON AN ATHENIAN DEME IN THE IMPERIAL PERIOD

Abstract This article presents an overview of Roman citizens registered in the small Attic deme of Besa. The epigraphic record indicates that three Roman emperors—Hadrian, Commodus and Severus Alexander—were enrolled as citizens in this deme, as was the influential eastern magnate G. Julius Antiochus Epiphanes Philopappos and several men who dominated Athenian politics during the High Imperial period. We argue that Hadrian's enrolment and repeated sojourns in Athens encouraged various individuals—including two of his successors—to join this deme, but why did the emperor himself choose Besa and not a larger, more important deme in the city's civic centre? Consequently, where did he live while serving as eponymous archon of Athens in 111/112 and later during his visits to the city as emperor? By synthesizing epigraphic, literary, archaeological and environmental sources, this paper offers the first comprehensive examination of Besa and its Roman citizens, highlighting the deme's significance within imperial Athens and the broader Roman empire. Finally, it suggests avenues for further interdisciplinary research in the study of this region of south Attica.

The Downturn of Egypt’s Eastern Desert in the Middle Roman Imperial Period

Roman activity in Egypt’s Eastern Desert fluctuated significantly, ranging from intense exploitation of its resources and desert routes that facilitated Indo-Mediterranean trade, to the Roman Empire’s near total abandonment of the region. In those areas crucial to the Roman state – stone quarries, Red Sea ports, desert road stations and mining settlements – a nadir in occupation occurs near the mid-third century CE. But archaeological evidence indicates that significant reductions in activity occurred between the late second and early third centuries CE – i.e., in the Antonine and Severan Periods. The downturn was probably a result of distant geopolitical engagements, outbreaks of disease and/or shifting patterns of trade, which led to the Empire’s neglect of and gradual withdrawal from the area. This article reviews the archaeology of the Eastern Desert and considers the reason(s) this once-important region fell into decline. [Formula: see text]

Survey on Roman {2}-Domination

The notion of Roman {2}-domination was introduced in 2016 as a variant of Roman domination, a concept inspired by a defending strategy used by the emperor Constantine (272–337 AD) to protect the Roman Empire. Since then, a considerable number of papers on Roman {2}-domination and its variants have been published. In this paper, we survey published results on Roman {2}-domination as well as the main findings on Roman {2}-domination variants found in the literature. A list of open problems related to this notion and its variants are also given.

Low Genetic Impact of the Roman Occupation of Britain in Rural Communities.

The Roman period saw the empire expand across Europe and the Mediterranean, including much of what is today Great Britain. While there is written evidence of high mobility into and out of Britain for administrators, traders, and the military, the impact of imperialism on local, rural population structure, kinship, and mobility is invisible in the textual record. The extent of genetic change that occurred in Britain during the Roman military occupation remains underexplored. Here, using genome-wide data from 52 ancient individuals from eight sites in Cambridgeshire covering the period of Roman occupation, we show low levels of genetic ancestry differentiation between Romano-British sites and indications of larger populations than in the Bronze Age and Neolithic. We find no evidence of long-distance migration from elsewhere in the Empire, though we do find one case of possible temporary mobility within a family unit during the Late Romano-British period. We also show that the present-day patterns of genetic ancestry composition in Britain emerged after the Roman period.