Roman God Research Articles

La sénescence cellulaire

Cellular senescence is, essentially, a permanent proliferation arrest induced by various cellular stresses or inappropriate stimuli. This arrest, which is associated with dramatic changes in cell morphology, metabolism and gene expression, involves a complex signalling network aiming at stable inactivation of CDKs, major cell cycle regulators. Notably, several tumour suppressors, such as p53, pRb or p16(Ink4a), play key roles both in the initiation of the senescence program and in its maintenance, which often involves epigenetic changes. While having widely recognized roles in tumour suppression and wound healing, senescence, like the roman god Janus, recently revealed another darker face. Mostly due to altered secretion phenotype favouring inflammation, senescent cells strongly influence surrounding tissue contributing to the development of age-related pathologies, including cancer.

THE JANUS FACE OF INSURANCE IN SOUTH AFRICA: FROM COSTS TO RISK, FROM NETWORKS TO BUREAUCRACIES

ABSTRACTThis study examines the consequences of the rapid and unprecedented expansion of insurances for the poor in South Africa. Over the last ten years, South African insurance companies established a myriad of policies in order to incorporate the previously excluded, mostly African, poor and lower middle classes. While poverty, violence and AIDS put state institutions and social relations under pressure, insurances enable people to manage risks in hitherto unthinkable ways. The article examines the development of this new regime of risk as a Janus head, after the Roman god of opening and closing. At the heart of access to insurance were the incongruencies that were caused by the ‘translation’ of risk into the seemingly neutral concept of costs and the inability of brokers and intermediary organizations to navigate these translations successfully. Access to insurance – here not defined as having an insurance policy but as making a successful claim when confronted with the insured risk – was fraught with the contradictions of complex high-tech bureaucracies and the poor's social networks.

Making an Impact: Cultural Studies, Media and Contemporary Work

Making an Impact: Cultural Studies, Media and Contemporary Work

Doubting the Global War on Terror

Soon after Al Qaeda's terrorist attacks on 11 September 2001, the Bush Administration described its new grand strategy: the "Global War on Terror". This article examines the 'two-track' process that US neoconservatives and 'echo chamber' media used, to promote the GWOT grand strategy. It re-examines why many experts and institutions expressed doubt about specific claims the Bush Administration made to support the 2003 Iraq War. Historical counterfactuals suggest that the Bush Administration's Global War on Terror could have evolved very differently . . . or not occurred at all.

Anisotropic particles with patchy, multicompartment and Janus architectures: preparation and application

Anisotropic particles, such as patchy, multicompartment and Janus particles, have attracted significant attention in recent years due to their novel morphologies and diverse potential applications. The non-centrosymmetric features of these particles make them a unique class of nano- or micro-colloidal materials. Patchy particles usually have different compositional patches in the corona, whereas multicompartment particles have a multi-phasic anisotropic architecture in the core domain. In contrast, Janus particles, named after the double-faced Roman god, have a strictly biphasic geometry of distinct compositions and properties in the core and/or corona. The term Janus particles, multicompartment particles and patchy particles frequently appears in the literature, however, they are sometimes misused due to their structural similarity. Therefore, in this critical review we classify the key features of these different anisotropic colloidal particles and compare structural properties as well as discuss their preparation and application. This review brings together and highlights the significant advances in the last 2 to 3 years in the fabrication and application of these novel patchy, multicompartment and Janus particles (98 references).

The two faces of Janus kinases and their respective STATs in mammary gland development and cancer

Since its discovery as “just another kinase” more than twenty years ago, the family of JAK tyrosine kinases and their respective Signal Transducers and Activators of Transcription (STATs) has been a center of attention in the areas of signal transduction, development, and cancer. The subsequent designation of JAKs as Janus kinases after the mythical two-faced Roman God of the doorways accurately portrays the analogous and sometimes contrasting molecular and biological characteristics of these tyrosine kinases. The two “faces” of JAKs are their structurally similar kinase and pseudo-kinase domains. As essential parts of various transmembrane receptor complexes, these tyrosine kinases function at cellular gateways and relay signals from growth factors to their respective intracellular targets. The multifaceted nature of JAKs becomes evident from their ability to activate specific STATs during distinct phases of normal mammary gland development. Studies in breast cancer cells and genetically engineered mouse models also show that JAK/STAT signaling possesses a "two-faced" role during breast cancer initiation and progression. This review will highlight recent findings about important biological functions of JAKs and STATs during normal mammogenesis, with particular emphasis on the Jak2/Stat5 pathway as well as Jak1/2/Stat3 signaling complexes. In addition, we will discuss how the importance of these signaling networks changes during carcinogenesis. With JAK inhibitors currently under development to treat myeloproliferative disorders, determining the essential functions of JAKs at particular stages of disease initiation and progression is of critical importance to predict the efficacy of these agents for targeted therapies against breast cancer.

Una inscripción de época republicana dedicada a <i>Salaecus</i> en la región minera de Carthago Nova

In this paper we study an unpublished votive inscription from Mina Mercurio (in Portman, Cartagena), exhibited at the Aguilas Archaeological Museum. It is dedicated by freedmen from the gens Roscia , a well-known family of negotiators who used to sign the argentiferous galena ingot hallmark found in Cabezo Rajao in La Union around 1846. It is one of the oldest inscriptions found in the area of Carthago Noua , and thus, in the whole Hispania. It is dated at the end of the 2nd century or very beginning of the 1st century b.c., especially with the use of an archaic plural nominative in -es. It is dedicated to Salaecus , a vocative etymologically related to water and the sea. For this reason and because of the place where it was found, it might refer to the Roman god Neptune or to a Hispanic deity related to water.

Prenatal Diagnosis of Cephalothoracopagus Janiceps

Journal of Ultrasound in MedicineVolume 29, Issue 11 p. 1657-1661 Case Report Prenatal Diagnosis of Cephalothoracopagus Janiceps Sonographic-Pathologic Correlation Suchaya Luewan MD, Corresponding Author Suchaya Luewan MD [email protected] Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, ThailandAddress correspondence to Suchaya Luewan, MD, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, 50200 Chiang Mai, Thailand.,Search for more papers by this authorKornkanok Sukpan MD, Kornkanok Sukpan MD Department of Pathology, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, ThailandSearch for more papers by this authorYuri Yanase MD, Yuri Yanase MD Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, ThailandSearch for more papers by this authorTheera Tongsong MD, Theera Tongsong MD Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, ThailandSearch for more papers by this author Suchaya Luewan MD, Corresponding Author Suchaya Luewan MD [email protected] Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, ThailandAddress correspondence to Suchaya Luewan, MD, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, 50200 Chiang Mai, Thailand.,Search for more papers by this authorKornkanok Sukpan MD, Kornkanok Sukpan MD Department of Pathology, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, ThailandSearch for more papers by this authorYuri Yanase MD, Yuri Yanase MD Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, ThailandSearch for more papers by this authorTheera Tongsong MD, Theera Tongsong MD Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, ThailandSearch for more papers by this author First published: 01 November 2010 https://doi.org/10.7863/jum.2010.29.11.1657Citations: 2Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Citing Literature Volume29, Issue11November 2010Pages 1657-1661 RelatedInformation

Phoebus volentem proelia me loqui: Kalimahov Apolon pri Horaciju

Kalimahova upodobitev Apolona v Prologu k pesnitvi Ajtia je postala zgled za številne recusationes v poeziji avgustejske dobe. Članek prikaže in analizira paralelna mesta v Horacijevem opusu: prenos Apolonove vloge na drugo božanstvo v C. 1.6, C. 1.19, Epod. 14 in S. 1.10, preoblikovanje Apolonovega navodila v prošnjo Merkurju v S. 2.6 in svarilo Horacijevega Apolona v C. 4.15. Največ pozornosti je deležna zadnja pesem, v kateri lahko razberemo tudi očitne aluzije na Vergilijevo in Propercijevo poezijo.

The Righteousness of God in Psalms and Romans

AbstractPaul quoted extensively from scripture, especially in Romans. Many of these citations are from the Psalms, using the Septuagint. Paul could have found all his vocabulary and concepts for ‘justification by faith’ in the Psalms. The Psalms contain a doctrine of ‘righteousness through faithfulness’: God is righteous by forming a covenant with Israel, and proves his righteousness by remaining faithful to that covenant despite Israel's failings. He will remain faithful to the end by vindicating his righteous ones when they are oppressed by the ungodly. Israelites are righteous by having been elected to the covenant and will remain righteous through faithfulness to God, the marks of which are the avoidance of idolatry and keeping the law. Far from rejecting this Old Testament inheritance, Paul takes over this doctrine of ‘righteousness through faithfulness’ as it stands in the Psalms (Romans 1:18–3:20) and then christologises it (from 3:21). The mark of faithfulness to God now is no longer the law, however, but faithfulness to Christ, who is himself the model of faithfulness and what it is to be righteous. This understanding of how one becomes righteous is located by Paul himself within his fivefold scheme of salvation at Romans 8:30: foreknown, predestined, called, made righteous and glorified.

A New Corporate Paradigm:: The CEO and CFO – A Partnership of Equals

I t is generally understood that the role of the CEO (chief executive officer) is that of the visionary leader – charismatic, transactional, or transformational – the heart of the business. Historically, the CEO has been considered the architect of success, fortune and global recognition. In some cases, that fame has lived well beyond the life of the CEO. Rockefeller and Vanderbilt left industrial monuments to their ambition and vision. More recently Bill Gates and Sam Walton have assumed the mantle ‘‘Captains of Industry.’’ Businesses such as IBM Corp., Standard Oil Co., General Motors Corp. and General Electric Co. are synonymous with the long line of CEOs who led them to greatness. Even the most recent: Volkswagen AG, Toyota Motor Co., Citibank, Microsoft Corp., Apple Computer Inc., Boeing Co., and Google, have been added to the list of global players. They are all a testament to the CEOswho led them to their greatness. At the same time, lost in the mist of business history is the chief financial officer – the CFO, the person who toiled in obscurity for generations in the shadow of these CEOs. The person in this under-valued and largely invisible position has been the custodian of the corporate treasury, the protector of the margin, and the pillar of the corporate conscience. While the CEO looked over the horizon in search of the next great idea, the CFO was obliged to look at the next footfall, whether the next quarterly report to the shareholders, or to the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), to the courts or to a U.S. Senate investigation committee. In many boardrooms, the group around the table consists less of a team than of two camps with totally divergent views of the vision and mission of the business. One faction is led by the increasingly empowered CFO, the other by the CEO. However, rather than viewing these as two irreconcilable camps, an alternative view is to see these often-conflicting roles as one team with two faces: similar to the two-faced Roman god, Janus. One face is the eternal optimist pushing ahead at full speed, sometimes with rose-colored glasses; the other, the face of the realist, urging caution andwary of risk. However, both faces are inmanyways still a team, partly dysfunctional perhaps, but two parts of a whole, with the same ultimate intent. It is the premise of this article that although those two roles are separately in the process of a transformation, increasingly, both are drawing closer to a point of intersection with respect to their corporate roles and operations management.

Back to the future

What do Roman gods and security predictions have in common? Quite a lot, if your Roman god happens to be Janus. He was the god of doors and gateways, beginnings, and endings, and he was characterised by his two faces -- one gazing reflectively at the past, and the other with its eyes fixed intently on the future.

The Scientific Method: Use It Correctly

Science is a systematic means of investigation that uses observations, experimentation and hypothesis testing in a wide range of subject disciplines. The correct experimental design, controls, reference standards, calibrations, standard operating procedures, statistical testing, random or systematic sampling, and blind studies are often necessary. In some research, initial observations or preliminary experiments lead to improved experimental designs and improved research and discoveries. Bias and subjectivity need to be removed so that the correct conclusions can be arrived at, and then further experimentation can be undertaken, if necessary. Science is not a belief system, but a method of investigation that is subjected to peer review with conclusions open to debates, and experimental results verified or dismissed by other researchers. The scientific method is not perfect, but it is the best method we currently have and has been used for centuries. Modern science is also highly dependent on complex technologies and instruments often coupled with advanced computing analysis. Scientists also require advanced degrees and education that take over a decade to complete. In reality, it takes a career lifetime to become a scientist. So why do scientists submit and even publish articles that use the following descriptions in their research? It was assumed, in our opinion, we believe, I believe, I am speculating, we are speculating that. Science is not a belief system. You can believe in anything. These beliefs are products of the human imagination. You can believe the Earth is flat, the moon is composed of cheese, Martians' life on Mars, Greek and Roman gods exist, and there is eternal life. It is irrational to have such beliefs and there is no evidence for these beliefs. However, since humans have freewill and are often irrational, they often believe what they want to believe. It is disturbing to see the use of beliefs, speculations, and opinions without supporting experimentation and data used in science journals. If I have done this, I plead guilty and apologize. You can believe anything, postulate anything, and hypothesize anything. This is not science. The hypothesis must be testable. The hypothesis should also be plausible—being reasonable and possible. Formulating a hypothesis that is not plausible, not scientifically testable, and proceeding with experiments anyway may not benefit humanity. A correctly formulated hypothesis is a valuable tool in science research. The imagination is not dulled and sometimes immense discoveries are forthcoming when one is diverted from the original experiments. Honesty, integrity, and lack of corruption are also needed for quality and correct science. Moreover, even scientists may have personal opinions that are beyond scientific verification. However, they should not be brought into the scientific arena and objective reality. Water Air Soil Pollut (2010) 205:1 DOI 10.1007/s11270-009-0265-8

Integrating the cell stress response: a new view of molecular chaperones as immunological and physiological homeostatic regulators

The response of cells to stress was first documented in the 1960s and 1970s and the molecular nature of the families of proteins that subserve this vital response, the molecular chaperones, were identified and subjected to critical study in the period from the late 1980s. This resulted in the rapidly advancing new field of protein folding and its role in cellular function. Emerging at the same time, but initially largely ignored, were reports that molecular chaperones could be released by cells and exist on the outer plasma membrane or in the body fluids. These secreted molecular chaperones were found to have intercellular signalling functions. There is now a growing body of evidence to support the hypothesis that molecular chaperones have properties ascribed to the Roman god Janus, the god of gates, doors, beginnings and endings, whose two faces point in different directions. Molecular chaperones appear to have one set of key functions within the cell and, potentially, a separate set of functions when they exist on the cell surface or in the various fluid phases of the body. Thus, it is a likely hypothesis that secreted molecular chaperones act as an additional level of homeostatic control possibly linking cellular stress to physiological systems such as the immune system. This review concentrates on three key molecular chaperones: Hsp10, Hsp60 and the Hsp70 family for which most information is available. An important consideration is the role that these proteins may play in human disease and in the treatment of human disease.

“The Raven” as an Elegiac Paraclausithyron

“The Raven” has spellbound readers and critics for generations with its ominous raven, the lost Lenore, and the narrator’s descent into self-torment and madness, not to mention its haunting meter and rhyme scheme. It has also inspired many to search for its literary origins.1 One previously unnoticed avenue to an enriched understanding of “The Raven” is to consider it as a type of elegiac paraclausithyron, a Greek (and Roman) poetic form consisting of the lament of an excluded, locked-out lover (exclusus amator) at the shut door of his beloved.2 Poe’s knowledge of Greek and Latin is well documented,3 so he probably would have been familiar with the paraclausithyron, which was widely known in Greek and Roman love literature—appearing not only in elegy but in genres as diverse as the lyric, epigram, idyll, pastoral, comedy, and mime.4 For Tibullus, Propertius and Ovid, the paraclausithyron was central to love poetry. In fact, Ovid saw poetry as the invention of the lover singing for admittance to his lady ad clausas fores (at the shut door), and Propertius made the door a synonym of love itself.5

Identification of novel immunosuppressive pathways paves the way for drug discovery

“And therefore as a stranger give it welcome.□ There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio,□ Than are dreamt of in your philosophy”. Shakespeare. “In the middle of the road of my life I awoke in the dark wood where the true way was wholly lost” or more optimistically, you chose…. “From a little spark may burst a flame.” Dante. As we deepen our understanding of the immune system at the molecular level we realize that many more soluble immunomodulatory factors than previously anticipated are released by what are considered “immune” and “non-immune cells” that closely dictate ensuing responses. Several of these factors have overt immunostimulating activities, while others may be conveniently classified as inhibitory mediators. However, dogmatic attribution of functions is often impossible: many immunomodulatory mediators may activate or inhibit immunity and inflammation depending on the kinetics of exposure, concentrations of mediators and the concomitant presence of other extracellular factors. End results that may be quite distinct are likely facilitated by the integration at the target cell level of these multiple signals. This concept of “variability in any beginning” has been known for millennia, and associated with choice as with the two headed Roman god of gateways, Janus; or the Hindu elephant god of obstacles and beginnings, Ganesh. Immune cell interconnected networks may be functional in much the same way as the gating of signals in “flash memory” operate. These issues are particularly relevant when we move away from the cell surface and attempt to characterize the biochemical composition of the inflammatory and pericellular microenvironment, where multiple discrete compartmentalized sites are likely to exist. Consider, as an example, cancer where adenosine and factors released from tumour cells might continuously influence the responses of infiltrating immune cells, thus turning what should be a host protective effector mechanism (anti-tumour) into a detrimental (pro-tumour) response. Several endogenous immunosuppressive factors have been recognized for decades, but the list of such factors has increased dramatically over the last few years. In addition to cytokines, we now know that many factors, including ecto-enzymes previously considered to be “inert” (e.g. arginase), are, on the contrary, endowed with a powerful immunosuppressive activity. Molecules such as nucleotides and derivatives, which were thought to be restricted to intracellular mediators, involved in biological synthetic pathways and serving as a universal energy currency, are now looked at as modulators of inflammation and immunity (with differing effects at various concentrations!). Together with the discovery of novel soluble factors, scientists in this area have also identified the cell types chiefly responsible for their release. Some times, these are well known cells that can be imparted with this novel function; at other times they are utterly new cell types, where the characterization might not be entirely satisfactory. The obvious consequence of such a powerful research effort is the identification of many new perspective targets for pharmacological intervention. We all know that despite the wide availability of products marketed by the pharmaceutical industry, families of immunomodulatory drugs are few. In other words, all our efforts to modulate immunity revolve about a few, select targets. These limitations pose obvious limits to our ability treat immunological and inflammatory diseases effectively. Here, we provide a concise description of the cellular biology of major novel and recognized negative modulators of immunity, underline the role of novel cell types and provide an update of putative drugs that are being tested for their ability to interfere with these pathways. This issue provides an appraisal of a) the bifaceted action of TGF-β, IL-10 and IL-22, b) the crucial role of HLA-G in pregnancy, c) the novel field of intervention opened by the discovery of myeloid-derived suppressor cells, d) the immunoregulatory effect of hemeoxygenase and one of the products, carbon monoxide, e) insights into a fascinating world of extracellular nucleotides and nucleosides, d) the contribution to immunity of Annexin-1 and microRNAs to immunoregulation. These discoveries of novel mediators of immunity will be relevant for therapy as well as diagnosis and prognosis. It would be highly desirable to validate a panel of easy-to-measure soluble factors or bio-markers, which might allow us to recognize inflammation early, help monitor the clinical course and allow intervention with targeted therapies, as required. We also hope that this contribution will encourage investigators from these somewhat different fields to consider the multiple ways cells can communicate closely or at a distance in the absence of direct contacts. This early goal is perhaps the major rationale behind the choice of the themes dealt with in this issue on Immunomodulation.

The rhizosphere zoo: An overview of plant-associated communities of microorganisms, including phages, bacteria, archaea, and fungi, and of some of their structuring factors

Rhizosphere microorganisms have two faces, like Janus the Roman god of gates and doors who symbolizes changes and transitions, from one condition to another. One face looks at the plant root, the other sees the soil. The ears and the nose sense the other gods around and the mouths are wide open, swallowing as much as they can, and as described in Chapter 11, they also are busy talking. These faces may as well represent Hygieia (the Greek god of Health and Hygiene, the prevention of sickness and the continuation of good health) and Morta (the Roman god of death) for rhizosphere microbes can be beneficial, and promote plant growth and well being (Chapter 12) or detrimental, causing plant sickness and death (Chapter 13). It can be argued that many rhizosphere microbes are “neutral”, faceless saprophytes that decompose organic materials, perform mineralization and turnover processes. While most may not directly interact with the plant, their effects on soil biotic and abiotic parameters certainly have an impact on plant growth. Maybe they are Janus’ feet, the unsung heroes of the rhizosphere. This chapter addresses some aspects of the taxonomical and functional microbial diversity of the rhizosphere. Bacteria, Archea, viruses and Fungi will be at the heart of our discussion, while other rootassociated eukaryotes are the subjects of other chapters

Whole person care: encompassing the two faces of medicine

“I would go without shirt or shoe Friend, tobacco or bread, Sooner than lose for a minute the two Separate sides of my head!” — Rudyard Kipling, The Two-Sided Man ![Figure][1] FIGURE. Janus, the Roman god of doorways, looks in 2 directions.

Virgil’s Aeneid. A Reader’s Guide (review)

Reviewed by: Virgil’s Aeneid. A Reader’s Guide David Meban David O. Ross. Virgil’s Aeneid. A Reader’s Guide. Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2007. Pp. ix + 155. CDN $41.99. ISBN 9781405159739. Ancient texts present a number of interpretative stumbling blocks to non-specialist readers. Lack of familiarity with literary traditions, historical developments, and cultural norms, for example, frequently hinder the modern reader’s appreciation of Classical literature. This is very often the case, as David O. Ross illustrates in this splendid book, with Virgil’s Aeneid. Ross likewise contends that many past readers of the Aeneid have misinterpreted some of its important features and reduced many of its intricacies to hackneyed formulations and dichotomies. It is in response to these issues that Ross offers his book as both a guide to some of the poem’s most significant and influential elements and an attempt to remedy some of these misunderstandings. This approach is a refreshing departure from the normal agenda in such an undertaking and lends this work much of its appeal. But it is Ross’ sensitivity to and deep knowledge of the text and the clarity with which he articulates his interpretation of it that remain the greatest sources of the book’s success. The topics of the six chapters in the book offer few surprises. In the first chapter, for instance, Ross illustrates some of the characteristic traits [End Page 358] of Aeneas as hero and considers his relationships with father, son and mother. In Chapter Two he offers a comparable analysis of victims such as Dido, Turnus, Pallas and Lausus. Gods and fate are the subjects of Chapter Three. Ross reviews some of the distinctive features of Roman gods and how and when the Olympian gods were adopted into Roman culture, before turning to an examination of the actions of the gods in Books 1 and 12. In Chapter Four there is a very rewarding discussion of the various depictions of Troy in the poem (Ross’ analysis of Book 2 is particularly good), while in Chapter Five Ross explores the presentations of Rome and Roman history in Books 1, 6 and 8 and reveals how each is offered as a form of consolation but also ends in such a way as to force the reader to re-evaluate what has just been described. In the last chapter there is an overview of some details of Virgil’s life and a discussion of important elements of the Eclogues and Georgics. A more surprising component of the book is the appendix, in which Ross explains the Latin hexameter with examples drawn from the Aeneid. This review is somewhat unexpected in a work that is aimed, for the most part, at readers without knowledge of Latin, but its effectiveness in conveying some of the Latin artistry of Virgilian poetry makes it a welcome addition. The main divisions along which Ross arranges his discussion therefore manage to orient the reader to the cultural climate in which Virgil’s poem originates and enable examination and interpretation of many of the key features of the poem. Throughout the book, moreover, Ross judiciously manages to ground his discussion both through consideration of the text as a whole and through close, detailed readings of specific books and passages. As a reader’s guide to the Aeneid, several features of Ross’ book stand out. One of the most notable is that the book, as Ross emphasizes in his preface, is meant as a guide and not an introduction. Ross chooses not to summarize content or exhaustively list specific features of the poem, but rather selects and explores what he believes to be some of the essential features of the poem in as meaningful a way as possible. One of the most distinctive and stimulating characteristics of Ross as a guide to the Aeneid is his willingness to correct what he believes has been misunderstood or neglected in the interpretation of the poem. In the first chapter on Aeneas, for instance, Ross’ analysis of character proceeds from the argument that Aeneas does not possess the lack of emotional depth and human responsiveness that is often attributed to him. In a series of close readings of...

El Dies Solis en la legislación constantiniana

Constantine provided two measures on Sunday’s observance. The first one was the institution of a weekly market (nundinae) every Sunday in the district of Aquae Iasae (Pannonia Superior), dated between the years 316 and 321. The second one is the enactment of a general law, directed to the vicar of the pretorian praefect in the City of Rome, Helpidius, that stablished the Sunday as dies festus, and, consequently, an official and private rest day, with some exceptions. The terms of the Constantinian dispositions on Sunday were not relative to Christianity. Namely, Constantine legislated on Sunday under the heathen denomination of Dies Solis (“the Day of the Sun”), and never as the Christian Dies Dominicus (“the Day of the Lord”). In fact, the Constantinian dispositions on Sunday indicated the Dies Solis as a day of weekly rest in order to furnish the Roman citizens a weekly space of time dedicated to the observance of vows to the Roman gods. According to the text of the laws, the first aim of the Constantinian dispositions was the emperor’s achievement of heathen piety (pietas), following the Roman consuetudines. Taking into account that these dispositions were enacted during 323-324, the critical period previous to the second civil war between Constantine and Licinius, they could be considered as a form of Constantinian adhesion to Roman customary religious forms, in opposition with the syncretistical religious cults developed by his reival Licinius in the Eastern provinces of the Empire. Nevertheless, the Constantinian measures on Sunday were also meant to the Christian citizens, who recognized the Sunday as the “Holy Day of the Lord” after 324. Later, in 335-336, Eusebius of Caesarea developed this identification in De laudibus Constantini, with the emperor’s approvement, but it was not until 386 that the Sunday received a legal sanction as the “Day of the Lord”.