Roman Frescoes Research Articles

Real-time identification and visualization of Egyptian blue using modified night vision goggles

The possibility to use light in the visible spectrum to induce near-infrared luminescence in some materials, particularly Egyptian blue and related pigments, offers a significant advantage in terms of their detection. Since 2008, this property has been exploited to reveal the presence of those pigments even in tiny amounts on ancient and decayed surfaces, using a technical-photography method. This paper presents a new type of imaging device that enables real-time, easy, and inexpensive identification and mapping of Egyptian blue and related materials. The potential of the new tool is demonstrated by its effectiveness in detecting Egyptian blue within some prestigious sites: (a) Egyptian findings at Museo Egizio, Turin; (b) underground Roman frescoes at Domus Aurea, Rome; and (c) Renaissance frescoes by Raphael, Triumph of Galatea and Loggia of Cupid and Psyche, at Villa Farnesina, Rome. The device is based on night vision technology and allows an unprecedented fast, versatile, and user-friendly approach. It is employable by professionals including archeologists, conservators, and conservation scientists, as well as by untrained individuals such as students or tourists at museums and sites. The overall aim is not to replace existing photographic techniques but to develop a tool that enables rapid preliminary recognition, useful for planning the work to be carried out with conventional methods. The ability to immediately track Egyptian blue and related pigments, through real-time vision, photos, and videos, also provides a new kind of immersive experience (Blue Vision) and can foster the modern use of these materials in innovative applications and future technologies.

Biodiversity and conservation correlation in the case of a Roman fresco located in a semi-confined environment

The subterranean heritage includes both natural and built sites with a strong cultural and historical fingerprint, some of each being enriched with painted surfaces. These semi-confined environments shelter specific and fragile biodiversity. This paper is focused on the case of a Roman painting (2nd-3rd century AD) located in an underground archaeological site in Marino Laziale, near Rome, which was opened to the public for the first time in 2021. The painted Mithraic scene is in a good state of conservation. The methodological approach included on site and laboratory investigations aimed to screen the main biological components associated to this hypogeum monument. The observed biodiversity included heterotrophic and chemolithotrophic microorganisms, and a mesofauna composed of eutroglophile and subtroglophile species, characteristic for many subterranean environments. The ecological mechanisms and the conservation state of the work of art were analyzed for planning the best fruition practices. The aesthetic change, the possible mechanical damages induced by various organisms, and the presence of significant amounts of organic matter, represent the main risks for painting conservation. These aspects, beside the new possible risks associated with the presence of visitors, are under a constant and ongoing conservation surveillance program.

A smartphone-based innovative approach to discriminate red pigments in roman frescoes mock-ups

• Frescoes replicas using red pigments were prepared to develop a smartphone-based methodological approach. • Colour properties were measured by spectrocolorimeter and smartphone. • Chemometric classificatory methods were used to identify red pigments colors. • Low classification errors were obtained employing LDA and SVC classifying methods. • A new and easy approach employing mobile phones to discriminate red pigments is presented. The characterization of red pigments in frescoes wall paintings has been of great interest for researchers to better understand raw material procurement dynamics, pigment receipts, stylistic evolution and to assess their conservation state. In this study a non-destructive colorimetric approach implementing a smartphone-based method was developed in order to be able to distinguish between three pigments made from minium, haematite and cinnabar minerals, and also mixed pigments, preparing frescoes mock-ups following the roman receipt described by Vitruvius. Portable FT-IR, Raman spectroscopy, portable XRF and visible reflectance spectra analyses were carried out as reference methods for smartphone colorimetry results validation. Employing a reference colour sheet to control changing lighting conditions, different chemometric approaches have been developed and tested, cross-referencing standard analytical results with the data obtained by smartphone. Overall, using only colour parameters from the smartphone, a Linear Discriminant Analysis and a Support Vector Classifier were tested to efficiently classify each sample based on the red pigment used, with low prediction errors. This work shows the potential of smartphones as cheap, fast and user-friendly analytical devices for the screening of frescoes, and as a prior selective step before carrying out further more expensive and specialized analyses.

A Multi-Analytical Investigation of Roman Frescoes from Rapoltu Mare (Romania)

(1) Background: Due to the precarious situation of many monuments or archeological sites, analytical investigations are necessary to obtain information about the used materials, as well as to identify the most appropriate solutions for their conservation/restoration. This paper addresses the characterization of mural painting fragments collected during the excavation in 2018 in Rapoltu Mare (La vie), Deva. (2) Methods: Specific analytical techniques were used, as follows: X-ray diffractometry (XRD), wavelength dispersive X-ray fluorescence (WDXRF), optical microscopy (OM), zoom microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), spectroscopic techniques (UV–Vis, FTIR, Raman), porosity and thermal analysis, all of which provide information about the structure, chemical composition, morphology and topography of pigments and their deterioration as well. (3) Results: Up to seven different pigments were identified: Egyptian blue, carbon, calcite, gypsum, hematite, goethite and green earth. Egyptian Blue is identified in all the other color areas, except the white area: in the green zone (as degradation product with beeswax) and in the red zone (in mixture with ochre) too. In addition, carbon and beeswax were highlighted as toner and binder for pigments, respectively. In the presence of the organic beeswax binding environment, the Egyptian blue pigment particles darkened or turned yellow significantly, changing the blue to a greenish color. It is also possible to identify wollastonite (CaSiO3) in the blue pigment, which indicates that the temperature used in the manufacturing of Egyptian blue was higher than 950 °C from thermal analysis. The presence of apatite, hematite and gypsum deposits in the Hunedoara region certifies that these pigments could have been of local origin, as demonstrated by the presence of analytically identified elements (Fe, P, S, Ca). (4) Conclusions: The analytical techniques used for such investigations have highlighted the main pigments used in Roman times for various Roman murals.

The Hanging Garlands of Pompeii: Mimetic Acts of Ancient Lived Religion

Roman painting is full of items associated with religious practice. Garlands, in particular, are found represented in Roman frescoes, often draped over different panels to enliven the painted surface with the semblance of abundant fresh flowers. There are indications, however, that in Roman domestic spaces, latrines, and streets, physical garlands were actually attached to the frescoes as votive offerings that mimic the painted garlands behind them. This paper considers how Roman paintings worked in tandem with garlands and other physical objects, and how Pompeiians engaged in mimetic acts. The two-dimensional painted surface depicting “mimetic votives” should be viewed within a three-dimensional space inhabited by people and objects. The mimetic act of hanging a garland was part of ancient lived religion, and, as such, enables us to examine past religious experiences, focusing on the individual and communication with the divine. The relationship between these various visual media would have created unique experiences in the daily lives of ancient Romans that are rarely considered today.

Stratigraphic characterization of ancient Roman frescos by laser induced breakdown spectroscopy and importance of a proper choice of the normalizing lines

In order to answer to some specific unsolved questions regarding ancient Roman frescoes from Villa della Piscina, already examined by other spectroscopic techniques, LIBS stratigraphic measurements were performed on the most representative sample fragments. We found that taking into account just the line intensities or applying a single normalization approach based on ratio of the element's analytical line and a selected transition from a main sample constituent, here of Ca, might produce misleading results of depth profiling by LIBS. During the laser induced ablation, parameters of the detected plasma might change both due to the crater development and different overlaid matrix materials, as in case of heterogeneous painted samples, possibly realized with different techniques. We performed the theoretical simulations to select the pair of Cu I and Ca I lines less sensitive to variations of the plasma temperature in presence of local thermal equilibrium (LTE). However, when using not gated detectors as here, the experimental results showed that only a partial LTE holds. For this reason, the choice of the optimum normalization line must take into account also the energy gap between the excited levels of the species, which energies affect the emission lifetime and consequently, the intensity captured by not gated detectors. In following, to the each element's analytical line a specific Ca I line was attributed for deducing the relative element distribution in sample. Following this approach and by detecting simultaneously up to 20 elements per laser pulse, it was possible to distinguish clearly by LIBS also thin overpainted layers of similar colour, and to recognize the painting technique used. Through detection of trace and light elements and studies of their correlations with other elements during ablation of on painted layer, in some cases it was possible also to establish the geographical provenance of the material used.

Re-conservation and reinpretation of a Roman Fresco from Sirmium

This paper deals with the re-conservation of an old conserved unit and the new iconographic analysis of a wall painting that was kept in the Museum of Srem?s (Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia) storage depot. Experts from the Provincial Institute for the Protection of Cultural Monuments started but did not finish the reconstruction in the 1990s, which has led to its further deterioration. Their conservation and restoration work on these fragments were extensive and offered a wealth of extraordinary technological and iconographic information.

VIRTUAL CONSERVATION-RESTORATION VS. ACTUAL CONSERVATION-RESTORATION IN THE CONSERVATION OF FRAGMENTARY ARTEFACTS: THE CASE STUDY FRESCOES FROM SYBARIS - COPIA (ITALY)

This article discusses the role that new digital technologies play on conservation-restoration of fragmentary artefacts. Above all, the use of these tools is essential in case the artefacts have lost the formal unity and reach us without documentation concerning their original position, as in the case of the Roman frescoes from Sybaris, object of this study. The creation of virtual models proves as fundamental for the material and formal recomposition of the artefacts, especially in the creation of a new support and display choices. This last aspect required an analysis on the effects that virtual reconstructions and augmented reality have on visitors.

Multi-analytical study of Roman frescoes from Villa dei Quintili (Rome, Italy)

The present work reports a multi-analytical study, based on Polarized Optical Microscopy (POM), Scanning Electron Microscopy equipped with an Energy Dispersive X-ray detector (SEM-EDX), micro-Raman and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR) techniques, aimed at establishing the painting techniques and palettes used to decorate a variety of fragments of frescoes coming from Villa dei Quintili in Rome (Italy) and dated back 2nd century CE. This combined methodological approach, covering different spatial scales extending from the macroscopic to the elemental domain, revealed successful for the unambiguous identification and characterization, in non-invasive or at least micro-destructive way, of pigments, binders and stone materials. The used chromatic palette was identified as yellow ochre (goethite), carbon black (vegetal origin), probably green earth and Cu-green pigment, red ochre (haematite), lime white and Egyptian blue (cuprorivaite). Organic and inorganic binders were respectively identified as linseed oil and lime, this latter carbonated to calcium carbonate. Textural features of plasters were also evaluated in order to investigate raw materials used for their production.The obtained data revealed crucial for improving knowledge of materials and preparation methods of pigmenting agents of these fragments, taken from the warehouse of the Villa and hence of unknown provenance area, in view of their right positioning in a specific area of the archaeological complex. In fact, the characterization of the different pigments could support conservators to better identify the distribution of the frescoes among the different rooms, and to reconstruct the original aesthetics of the Villa during the Quintili age.

GC–MS detection of plant pigments and metabolites in Roman Julio-Claudian wall paintings

For the first time, plant pigments were detected in Roman frescoes. Indeed, only sporadic papers proved the application of natural hues in ancient paintings and none of them relative to Roman art. Therefore, eight differently coloured fragments of Julio-Claudian wall paintings, collected from Terme degli Stucchi Dipinti archaeological site (Rome, Italy), were subjected to GC–MS analysis, obtaining detailed chemical profiles. Vegetal dyes (ie. Indigotin, Neronine, Alizarin) or colourless metabolites ascribable to plant species (ie. Basella rubra, Sesanum radiatum, Lamium purpureum) were detected. Plant waxes, oils (ie. Brassicaceae) and resins (ie. Pinaceae) were found to be preferred as binders or protective coatings instead of animal glues (ie. collagen, egg). Several natural molecules, typically associated to plant organisms (ie. Lamiaceae and Citrus species), were also identified. These data suggest the predominant role of plant extracts in ancient art and increase the knowledge about organic materials of Roman frescoes, facilitating modern restorers’ activities.

Book Review of Art of Empire: The Roman Frescoes and Imperial Cult Chamber in Luxor Temple, edited by Michael Jones and Susanna McFadden

Book Review of Art of Empire: The Roman Frescoes and Imperial Cult Chamber in Luxor Temple, edited by Michael Jones and Susanna McFadden

Online-Only Content

Next article FreeOPEN ACCESS ON AJA ONLINE (www.ajaonline.org)Online-Only ContentPDFPDF PLUSFull Text Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditEmailQR Code SectionsMoreOnline-only content accompanying American Journal of Archaeology Volume 121, Number 2 (April 2017)SUPPLEMENTARY CONTENTImage Gallery: Recontextualizing Nilotic Scenes: Interactive Landscapes in the Garden of the Casa dell’Efebo, Pompeii, by Caitlín E. BarrettImage Gallery: Communicating Context: Spain’s Newly Renovated Museo Arqueológico Nacional, by Josephine ShayaONLINE NECROLOGYCharalambos Bouras (1933–2016), by Nassos PapalexandrouBOOK REVIEWSClimate and Ancient Societies, edited by Susanne Kerner, Rachael J. Dann, and Pernille Bangsgaard. Reviewed by Guy D. MiddletonKition-Bamboula VI: Le sanctuaire sous la colline, by Annie Caubet, Sabine Fourrier, and Marguerite Yon. Reviewed by Pamela GaberThe Image of the Artist in Archaic and Classical Greece: Art, Poetry, and Subjectivity, by Guy Hedreen. Reviewed by Robin OsborneOrigins of Classical Architecture: Temples, Orders and Gifts to the Gods in Ancient Greece, by Mark Wilson Jones. Reviewed by Rhys F. TownsendLe temps de Rhodes: Une chronologie des inscriptions de la cité fondée sur l’étude de ses institutions, by Nathan Badoud. Reviewed by John LundL’architecture monumentale grecque au IIIe siècle a.C., edited by Jacques des Courtils. Reviewed by Mary B. HollinsheadAuthentizität und Originalität antiker Bronzebildnisse: Ein gefälschtes Augustusbildnis, seine Voraussetzungen und sein Umfeld/Authenticity and Originality of Ancient Bronze Portraits: A Forged Portrait of Augustus, Its Prerequisites, and Its Surroundings, edited by Stephan Lehmann. Reviewed by Carol C. MattuschPower and Pathos: Bronze Sculpture of the Hellenistic World, edited by Jens M. Daehner and Kenneth Lapatin. Reviewed by John North HopkinsThe Archaeology of Nuragic Sardinia, by Gary Webster. Reviewed by Kyle P. FreundHousing the Chosen: The Architectural Context of Mystery Groups and Religious Associations in the Ancient World, by Inge Nielsen. Reviewed by Sandra BlakelyMedicine and Healing in the Ancient Mediterranean World, edited by Demetrios Michaelides. Reviewed by Zuzana ChovanecCultural Memories in the Roman Empire, edited by Karl Galinsky and Kenneth Lapatin. Reviewed by Margaret M. AndrewsBuilding for Eternity: The History and Technology of Roman Concrete Engineering in the Sea, by C.J. Brandon, R.L. Hohlfelder, M.D. Jackson, and J.P. Oleson. Reviewed by Mark Wilson JonesColumbarium Tombs and Collective Identity in Augustan Rome, by Dorian Borbonus. Reviewed by Emanuel MayerMonuments in Miniature: Architecture on Roman Coinage, by Nathan T. Elkins. Reviewed by Elizabeth Wolfram ThillCivic Monuments and the Augustales in Roman Italy, by Margaret L. Laird. Reviewed by Julia LenaghanArt of Empire: The Roman Frescoes and Imperial Cult Chamber in Luxor Temple, edited by Michael Jones and Susanna McFadden. Reviewed by Anne Hunnell ChenExcavations at Zeugma, edited by William Aylward. Reviewed by David ParrishThe Ceramics Industry of Roman Sikyon: A Technological Study, by Conor P. Trainor. Reviewed by Jaye McKenzie-ClarkHidden Lives, Public Personae: Women and Civic Life in the Roman West, by Emily A. Hemelrijk. Reviewed by Tatiana IvlevaList of Books Received Next article DetailsFiguresReferencesCited by American Journal of Archaeology Volume 121, Number 2April 2017 The journal of the Archaeological Institute of America Views: 32Total views on this site Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.3764/aja.121.2.online Views: 32Total views on this site Copyright © 2017 by the Archaeological Institute of America. All rights reserved.PDF download Crossref reports no articles citing this article.

Constantinople of Emperors and Rome of Popes in 6th-8th Centuries: Dialogue and Separation

Abstract The article deals with the political, theological and cultural dialogue between papal Rome and Imperial Constantinople. The period of 6-8th centuries is the one of Byzantine domination in Rome, and a number of Roman frescoes belong to this period, whose style and iconography give insights into the theological and political polemics, or into the cultural influence of early Byzantine art on the local tradition. Art works are rarely used or not used at all as sources in the study of relations between the two capitals and iconoclasm. This study can helpfully contribute to the overall research view on the subject.

Hermaphroditism in a Roman fresco from Herculaneum (first century A.D.), National Archaeological Museum, Naples, Italy.

Hermaphroditism in a Roman fresco from Herculaneum (first century A.D.), National Archaeological Museum, Naples, Italy.

Three Phaedra(s) Too Many

Three Phaedra(s) Too Many HELAINE L. SMITH The expense of spirit in a waste of shame Is lust in action; and, till action, lust Is perjured, murd’rous, bloody, full of blame, Savage, extreme, rude, cruel, not to trust; Enjoyed no sooner but despised straight; Past reason hunted, and no sooner had, Past reason hated . . . Sonnet 129 is superb, but, as Shakespeare knew, the relentless presentation of lust does not produce viable theatre. Phaedra(s) of Odéon-Théâtre de l’Europe cobbled together three texts whose subject was Eros, violent, self-destructive, and unquenchable, the sort of Eros whose only end is death. The audience’s expectation, mine, at least, was for an evening of ancient tragedy rewritten and updated in the manner of Marguerite Johnson’s superb “Medea, Fitzgerald Gallery, New York City, 1966”1 or Marguerite Yourcenar’s Fires. But what Krzysztof Warlikowski and Piotr Gruszczynski presented was Eros as always and only bestial and agonizing. That presentation occupied nearly four hours. The inside of The Brooklyn Academy of Music’s Harvey Theatre is faux distressed, perhaps the result of a demolition and restoration years past that never was completed. With a few contemporary touches—two working sinks, a microphone Phaedra(s), After Wajdi Mouawad, Sarah Kane, and J.M.Coetzee. Directed by Krzysztof Warlikowski. Odéon-Théâtre de l’Europe; Dramaturgy by Piotr Gruszczynski; Set and costume design by Malgorzata Szczesniak; Lighting design by Felice Ross; Music by Pawel Mykietyn; Video design by Denis Gueguin; Choreography by Claude Bardouil and Rosalba Torres Guerrero; Starring Isabelle Huppert, Gael Kamilindi, Andrzej Chyra, Alex Descas, and Agata Buzek. At the Brooklyn Academy of Music, September 13–18, 2016. arion 24.2 fall 2016 stand, a set of triangular industrial ceiling lights—and surrounded by stone-colored marble and a mirrored wall stage right, the set of Phaedra(s) seemed at once ancient and modern . The Harvey’s walls of peeling and mottled green, cream, and pink looked from where I sat as if a Roman fresco had just flaked off but might show itself faintly at any moment. Lines of ionic columns and decorative double arches extending outward from the stage further suggested a Greco-Roman space ideally suited to drama that would move back or forth in time. A singer entered, took the microphone and began an ever louder Arabic chant. Rosalba Torres Guerrero appeared, not at all the belly-dancing figure some critics describe. Her movements were, in fact, a modern variant, via Nureyev, of Nijinsky’s in L’Apres-midi d’un faune: flattening herself into imagined two-dimensional space, knees, elbows, and wrists at sharp angles, angular, jerky, even mechanistic, the faune/dancer moved through space, an emblem of sexual innocence and sexual awakening. Here was the essence of Phaedra’s ambivalence. As the insistent and deep-throated singing propelled Torres Guerrero’s body from one pose to another, the prologue suggested what the Phaedra(s) would reveal in different ways and varying proportions—that Eros overwhelms body and spirit, as the music did the dancer, and that love, for Phaedra as for the faune, is almost unbearable, innocent and knowing. Then the first play of the trilogy began. But instead of something touching and powerful, Warlikowski drowned us in turgid, writhing scene after scene, Huppert’s voice rising to screams and subsiding to sobs, Kamindi’s Hippolyte turning into a barking dog, and no one knowing why. In the course of the evening, Phaedra vomited, Theseus fucked a corpse, Hippolyte was reported as having masturbated into a dirty sock, and acts of fellatio were twice performed. We were neither shocked nor horrified. What we were was bored. Euripides, Seneca and Racine do not bore because they write with beauty about the mainsprings of grief and error, and present emotion in incremental terms. Their intenTHREE PHAEDRA(S) TOO MANY 158 tion is not to épater le bourgeoisie but to express a shared humanity. And yet there is perhaps nothing more shocking or horrible to read than Seneca’s description of the death of Hippolytus, or sadder than Theseus’ final curse, after he orders a funeral pyre for the remnants of his son...

Императорский Константинополь и папский Рим в VI—VIII вв.: диалог и размежевание

Abstract The article deals with the political, theological and cultural dialogue between papal Rome and Imperial Constantinople. The period of 6-8th centuries is the one of Byzantine domination in Rome, and a number of Roman frescoes belong to this period, whose style and iconography give insights into the theological and political polemics, or into the cultural influence of early Byzantine art on the local tradition. Art works are rarely used or not used at all as sources in the study of relations between the two capitals and iconoclasm. This study can helpfully contribute to the overall research view on the subject.

Cinnabar alteration in archaeological wall paintings: an experimental and theoretical approach

The red mineral pigment known as cinnabar (HgS) was commonly employed in Roman fresco wall paintings. Fresco artists of the period favored this pigment for its striking red color. However, upon excavation and exposure to air and light, cinnabar-pigmented surfaces recovered from archaeological contexts often proved to be unstable. Mural paintings colored with cinnabar that have been exposed in the open air frequently demonstrate a disfiguring, irreversible darkening of the surface. Traditionally, scholars have attributed this alteration to a light-induced phase change from red α-cinnabar to black β-cinnabar (meta-cinnabar). While this transformation has not been totally excluded, the prevailing view among conservation scientists is that chlorine plays a key role in the darkening process through the formation of light-sensitive mercury chloride compounds, or as a catalyst in the photochemical redox of Hg(II)S into Hg(0) and S(0). Using laboratory-based experiments and thermodynamic modeling, this paper attempts to further clarify the mechanism(s) and kinetics of cinnabar alteration in fresco applications, especially the role of light, humidity, and chlorine ions. Additionally, it explores possible pathways and preventive as well as remedial conservation treatments during or immediately following excavation, to inhibit or retard darkening of cinnabar-pigmented fresco surfaces.

Suitable classification of mortars from ancient Roman and Renaissance frescoes using thermal analysis and chemometrics.

BackgroundLiterature on mortars has mainly focused on the identification and characterization of their components in order to assign them to a specific historical period, after accurate classification. For this purpose, different analytical techniques have been proposed. Aim of the present study was to verify whether the combination of thermal analysis and chemometric methods could be used to obtain a fast but correct classification of ancient mortar samples of different ages (Roman era and Renaissance).ResultsAncient Roman frescoes from Museo Nazionale Romano (Terme di Diocleziano, Rome, Italy) and Renaissance frescoes from Sistine Chapel and Old Vatican Rooms (Vatican City) were analyzed by thermogravimetry (TG) and differential thermal analysis (DTA). Principal Component analysis (PCA) on the main thermal data evidenced the presence of two clusters, ascribable to the two different ages. Inspection of the loadings allowed to interpret the observed differences in terms of the experimental variables.ConclusionsPCA allowed differentiating the two kinds of mortars (Roman and Renaissance frescoes), and evidenced how the ancient Roman samples are richer in binder (calcium carbonate) and contain less filler (aggregate) than the Renaissance ones. It was also demonstrated how the coupling of thermoanalytical techniques and chemometric processing proves to be particularly advantageous when a rapid and correct differentiation and classification of cultural heritage samples of various kinds or ages has to be carried out.Graphical abstractPCA analysis of TG data allows differentiating mortar samples from different ages (Roman era and Renaissance).

An exceptionally perennial surface artwork: fresco on lime or on cement

The paper describes the near‐surface microstructure of artistic frescoes and compares the traditional fresco technique in which the pigments are applied on a fresh lime intonaco with the more recent technique in which the lime intonaco is replaced by a fresh cement plaster. The study is performed on artworks produced at different periods: one Roman fresco fragment dated from the first century CE, samples from a Renaissance Botticelli fresco and two works by a 20th century artist, Henri Marret, one on a lime intonaco and the other on a cement plaster. A special attention is given to the nature of the pigments used, to their position and adhesion process near the surface and to the colorimetric analysis of the pieces. The characterization of the different objects (performed by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and microanalysis, colorimetric measurements and X‐ray diffraction) gives full information on the influence of the artist's technique on the adhesion process and durability of the coloured decoration. It is proved that fresco painting on fresh cement, although considered at the beginning as not as efficient as fresco on lime, leads to a similar mechanism of pigment adhesion and probably to a similar durability. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A multi-analytical study of the fifteenth century mural paintings of the Batalha Monastery (Portugal) in view of their conservation

The systematic characterization of the painting’s palette and technique applied on the execution of the mural paintings of the Batalha Monastery (Batalha, Leiria, Portugal) is presented. These are the oldest mural paintings known in Portugal (apart from Roman frescoes) and represent the beginning of an artistic Portuguese tradition that continues until the nineteenth century. The aim of the study was to identify for the first time by adopting a multi-analytical physico-chemical approach of the pigments, binder, and alteration products (white veils, crusts, and pigment alteration) of these unique works of arts in order not only to better understand the painting technique, but also to support a conservation-restoration intervention that took place from April to August 2010. Micro-sampling of paint layers was performed on representative areas of the paintings. The characterization of the pigments and binders was carried out by microscopy and microanalysis of cross sections using optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (SEM-EDS), micro-FTIR, and micro X-ray diffraction. The combined analysis of the paintings allowed the identification of the painting’s palette: Vermillion (HgS) and red ochre for the reds, yellow ochres for the yellows, green earths and malachite for the greens, azurite for the blues, and carbon for the blacks. The use of the pigment is dependent of the motive painted while the most expensive materials were used in the most important iconographic motives. Alteration of malachite was identified in darkened layers in green areas of the paintings. White veil areas on the surface of the paintings were identified as calcite from precipitation/dissolution processes due to water run-off on the sacristy dome ceiling and walls.