Roman Cement Research Articles

Calcination of Roman cement: A pilot study using cement-stones from Whitby

Roman cement was patented in 1796 and established as a major material in the development of European architecture and engineering in the 19th century. However, the market is poorly served for those conservators wishing to use authentic materials in their work and there is a need to reintroduce Roman cement for such purposes. Cement-stones from Whitby were calcined at various temperatures and residence times in a laboratory kiln. The resulting cements were assessed for setting time, strength development and mineralogical characteristics. The properties are sensitive to calcination conditions with optimum strengths being achieved at temperatures of approximately 900 °C accompanied by rapid setting of <1 min. A three stage strength development profile was identified characterised by a high initial strength, a dormant period which could last for many weeks and a final increase in strength to an age of 1 year. Considerable variation in the composition was noted and related to the calcination conditions. Of particular interest is the formation of both α′-belite and β-belite under differing calcination conditions. Clinker particles were also compared using the SEM in both secondary electron and back-scattered electron imaging modes and the development of morphology observed.

Roman Cement

Roman cement had a short period of significant use in comparison to lime and Portland cement. Despite this, there is a legacy of fine buildings about which conservators need to be informed. Part One of this paper (published March 2007) provided a brief history of the material, its characteristics and the mortars used for stucco and cast decorative elements, with due recognition given to the surface finishes which were required. In this paper, a conservation strategy is proposed which includes reference to the EU-funded ROCEM project through which small-scale production of Roman cement has been recommenced. It is determined that further research is required before the impact on the consolidation of the historic fabric from the use of silicate paints can be fully understood.

Roman Cement

Roman cement had a short period of significant use in comparison to lime and Portland cement. Despite this, there is a legacy of fine buildings of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries in whose construction Roman cement was used, about which conservators need to be informed. This paper provides a brief history of the material, its characteristics and the mortars used for stucco and cast decorative elements with due recognition given to the surface finishes which were required.

Calcination of Marls to Produce Roman Cement

Abstract Marls were identified from a range of European sources and assessed for their Cementation Index, as proposed by Eckel. Two were selected for calcination in a laboratory kiln; one from Folwark in Poland (CI 1.75) and one from Lillienfeld in Austria (CI 2.03). Analysis of historical documents, while not revealing precise kiln conditions, does suggest that they were such as not to yield complete decarbonation of the calcite. Consequently, a series of calcinations was undertaken in which the peak temperature control of the kiln was set in the range 730°C to 1100°C, with residence times in the range 150 to 1250 min. The airflow through the kiln was sufficient to maintain a minimum oxygen content of at least 12 %. The resulting clinker was ground to comply with the 19th century Austrian Norme. Pastes were produced at w/c = 0.65 and assessed for setting time and strength development (6 h to 1 year). Both parameters were highly dependent upon calcination conditions with both “low” and “high” calcinations producing slower setting and slower strength development than intermediate conditions. Two strength development profiles were identified; one being the expected continuous increase of strength, albeit with a declining rate of increase with time, while the other showed a three-step sequence of high initial strength, a dormant period which could last for many weeks and a final increase in strength to an age of one year. The cements were compared using X-ray diffraction (XRD). Considerable variation in the composition was noted and related to the calcination conditions. Of particular interest is the formation of both α'-belite and β-belite under differing calcination conditions. Clinker particles were also compared using the SEM in back-scattered electron imaging mode and the development of morphology observed.

Life cycle, sustainability and the transcendent quality of building materials

This paper explores the relationship between the life cycle of engineering works and their sustainable and transcendent qualities, and considers the possibility of creating durable works with ephemeral materials. This paper also studies the impact of urban growth and its infrastructures on the environment through the consumption of raw materials and energy. City metabolism is one of the main causes of environmental deterioration, and present-day tendencies make it foreseeable that both urban and infrastructure development shall continue to increase. Although the expression “sustainable construction” is being used more and more, it is necessary to distinguish between the sustainability of the construction activity and the sustainability of works constructed. Both the materials and technologies used since ancient times have allowed many past works to have lasted thousands of years. Some were made out of permanent materials such as stone while others were made out of more ephemeral materials such as adobe bricks or cob walls. Structures built with Roman cement are still standing after 20 centuries. The overall durability of built structures depends on the durability of their materials. Transcendent construction was made possible either using permanent materials or more ephemeral materials, providing the project had taken the need for maintenance into consideration. The development of building works in a modular fashion makes the repairing action of modifying materials or parts of works possible without destroying its basic structure. With our present-day knowledge, plain concrete permits to create transcendent structures that could last several centuries.

Lessons from Roman Cement and Concrete

Although masonry and lime mortars had been used for centuries by earlier civilizations, the Romans were the first to extensively use naturally occurring volcanic earth to make hydraulic cement. The volcanic powder named “pulvis puteolanis,” found near the town of Puteoli near Naples (now Pozzouli), was used to build magnificent structures. The use of this hydraulic cement in masonry and concrete greatly expanded civil engineering possibilities. The Roman engineer Vitruvius, writing in The Ten Books on Architecture, described the careful materials selection, proportioning, and workmanship that was critical to the performance of Roman concrete. Masonry and coarse and fine aggregates were carefully selected for durability. Hydraulic cement concrete was used extensively for constructing bridge piers and harbor jetties. One of the greatest examples of Roman concrete construction was the dome of the Pantheon, with its 43.4-m span. The vast system of aqueducts also made extensive use of hydraulic cement. This pa...

CONCRETE AND THE STRUCTURAL USE OF CEMENTS IN ENGLAND BEFORE 1890.

The Years between the invention of Roman cement in 1796 and 1890, by when Portland cement had effectively replaced all its competitors as the binder for mortar, also saw the development of concrete and its increasing use for foundations and for fireproof flooring. This paper reviews that development and the use of cements in buildings by reference particularly to the Transactions of the Royal Institute of British Architects, which was the forum for discussion because building design was the preserve of architects, generally unassisted by engineers.

Roman Cement

Roman Cement Get access M. Playfair M. Playfair Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Notes and Queries, Volume 175, Issue 15, 8 October 1938, Page 264, https://doi.org/10.1093/nq/175.15.264d Published: 08 October 1938

Roman Cement

Journal Article Roman Cement Get access R. E. R. E. Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Notes and Queries, Volume 175, Issue 8, 20 August 1938, Page 136, https://doi.org/10.1093/nq/175.8.136j Published: 20 August 1938

The results of the Balfour Bore, Fifeshire

The Balfour diamond bore was started in the year 1902 from a position not far below the top of the Millstone Grit, in order to test the presence and thickness of the coal seams of the Carboniferous Limestone Series in that part of Fifeshire. The latitude of the borehole is 56° 11′ 15″ N., and the longitude 3° 4′ 45″ W. It was finished in the year 1907, having by that time attained the depth of 4534 ft., and being the deepest bore in Britain. The cores have been examined, and the bore-journal checked, by Mr D. Tait of the Geological Survey. The first material to be passed through was glacial sand and gravel overlying a layer of boulder clay. At a depth of 8 fms. solid rock was met with. From that point down to 110 fms. the bore pierced a series of massive sandstones, some of which were gritty or even pebbly in texture, separated by faky layers and beds of fireclay, the whole having the typical character of the Millstone Grit as developed in Scotland. The Glenboig fireclay position is absent, but at 112 fms. a thin encrinital limestone was met with, which is regarded as the equivalent of the Roman Cement of the Glenboig district and the Curdly Ironstone. Twenty fms. below this level is a limestone 8 ft. in thickness, winch is correlated with the Levenseat Limestone, and marks the top of the Carboniferous Limestone Series. Another thin limestone was found 10 fms. below the

The Ancient Lakes of Western America, their Deposits and Drainage*

The Ancient Lakes of Western America, their Deposits and Drainage*

Report on Roman cement

Report on Roman cement

XX. An Inscription in honour of Serapis found at York illustrated by Mr. Pegge

In August 1770, a stone was found in digging a cellar at York, at a place called the Friar's-Garden, one of the highest parts of the city. The workmen, in their progress, came to the foundation of an old building of Roman brick, the mortar or cement of which, was so hard as not to be penetrable by the Sharpest tools, the bricks breaking before the mortar. This part of the foundation was a segment of a circle: the remainder of it being under the adjoining house could not be traced out; there is reason, however, to apprehend, that the whole composed a rotunda. In digging the ground a little further, within the segment of the circle abovementioned, the men found a large gritstone, three feet long, two feet one inch broad, and eight inches thick.