Wheel Rolling Resistance Research Articles

Adaptive cruise control system with fractional order ANFIS PD+I controller: optimization and validation

Designing the control structures of fractional order PID controllers has proven to be effective in providing adaptability in set point tracing the performance of a nonlinear cruise control system. Wheel rolling resistance, wind drag force, and road gradient are incorporated into the design to better describe the system under consideration and to show how the nonlinear cruise control system behaves. This study presents a comparative investigation using simulation between control structures such as fractional order proportional–integral–derivative, fractional order integral minus proportional derivative, and fractional order proportional integral minus derivative. By preserving integral error indices as the goal function, a genetic algorithm is used to improve the controller gain parameters and fractional scaling values. To prevent integral windup conflicts and derivative boost issues, both traditional fractional order structures and adaptive neuro-fuzzy-based fractional order structures were used to create the adaptive cruise control system. The FO ANFIS PD plus I controller for the cruise control system exceeds the competition in servo and regulatory difficulties.

Parameter Optimization Method for Power System of Medium-Sized Bus Based on Orthogonal Test

Accurate and reasonable matching design is a current and difficult point in electric vehicle research. This paper presents a parameter optimization method for the power system of a medium-sized bus based on the combination of the orthogonal test and the secondary development of ADVISOR software. According to vehicle theoretical knowledge and the requirements of the vehicle power performance index, the parameters of the vehicle power system were matched and designed. With the help of the secondary development of MATLAB/Simulink and ADVISOR software, the modeling of the key parts of the vehicle was carried out. Considering the influence of the number of battery packs, motor power model, wheel rolling resistance coefficient, and wind resistance coefficient on the design of the power system, an L9 (34)-type orthogonal table was selected to design the orthogonal test. The dynamic performance and driving range of the whole vehicle were simulated using different design schemes, and the accuracy of the simulation results was verified by comparing and analyzing the simulation images. The results demonstrated that in the environment where the wind resistance coefficient was 0.6 and the wheel rolling resistance coefficient was 0.009, with 240 sets of lithium batteries (battery energy, 264 kW h; battery capacity, 100 Ah) as the power source, the pure electric medium-sized bus equipped with the PM165 permanent magnet motor (rated power, 60 kW; rated torque, 825 N m) could obtain the best power performance and economic performance. The research content of this paper provides a certain reference for the design of shuttle buses for Nantong’s bus system, effectively reduces the testing costs of the vehicle development process, and provides a new idea for the power system design of pure electric buses.

Rider’s position and acceleration of bicycle

We study how the acceleration of a bicycle varies as a function of the rider’s position. Since the rolling resistance of wheels depends on their deformation and therefore on the load on each wheel, the rider’s position affects the rolling resistance and the acceleration of the bicycle. The acceleration is a concave quadratic function of the rider’s position, and one can find the optimal position which maximizes the acceleration. Our study will be another topic for bicycle physics in addition to stability and aerodynamics and an example of the rolling motion of two connected objects to help students’ understanding of the rolling motion in a university physics course.

Investigation of the Influence of Permanent Traffic Lane Properties on Rolling of Bridge Agricultural Equipment Wheels

Abstract Movement of bridge agricultural equipment along the permanent traffic lanes is characterised by significant energy costs for overcoming the rolling resistance forces. Until now, the movement process of bridge agricultural equipment wheels along the compacted soil of permanent traffic lanes has been paid only a little attention. It has been established that the physical and mechanical properties of soil lanes significantly affect the energy consumption necessary for overcoming the rolling resistance of forces of bridge agricultural equipment wheels. Considering the range of possible changes in these properties, the coefficient of rolling resistance of equipment wheels varies from 0.06 to 0.1, which is 66%. In order to reduce the rolling resistance coefficient of equipment wheels when moving along the permanent traffic lanes, the surface needs to be undeformable. When moving along such a solid and dense supporting surface, the wheel rolling resistance is lowest.

Експериментальне дослідження опору кочення коліс автомобіля на роликовому стенді

The article considers the results of experimental studies of the rolling resistance of car wheels on a roller stand. Also, the dependence of the coefficient of total resistances during wheel rolling on the stand rollers on the speed was established. Monitoring and diagnosing the technical condition of the rolling stock of vehicles from the point of view of traffic safety is one of the most important problems. This control is especially important for systems whose technical condition affects traffic safety, first of all, brake systems, as well as the power unit in the traction test mode. Foreign and domestic experience testifies to the effectiveness of instrumental control. Its advantages lie in the reliability of the values of the checked parameters. The diagnostic equipment includes roller stands, on which you can check the braking and traction properties of cars. As shown by many studies, in particular, carried out at the Department of Technical Operation and Service of Automobiles, KhNADU (HADI), inertial stands provide more reliable information about the technical condition of the car. The inertial test method allows you to reproduce real speed and thermal modes of operation. To improve the accuracy of diagnosing a car on a roller stand, it is necessary to have an idea of the nature of the interaction of the car wheels with the stand rollers. Studies of wheel rolling on the stand rollers have been carried out by many authors since the 70s of the last century. However, all of these studies were conducted on old bias tires. Now, only radial tires are used on passenger cars, the rolling resistance of which on rollers has practically not been studied. Therefore, returning to the study of this issue is relevant. The rolling resistance of wheels on the rollers of the stand will significantly affect the nature of their interaction during long-term running tests (due to increased heating of contacting bodies, power losses, violation of similarity conditions, etc.). It was found that the value of the rolling resistance coefficient noticeably depends on the ratio of the radii of the roller and the wheel, as well as the contact load, that is, the radial force of pressing the wheel against the roller, and in addition, on the speed and duration of the mode. The obtained results of the experiment made it possible to improve the theory of the interaction of a car wheel with the rollers of an inertial diagnostic stand. Also, the results of the experiments can be extended to different types of tires and the ratio of the radii of the wheel and roller.

Дослідження кочення рушіїв мостових агрозасобів по слідах постійної технологічної колії

Goal. To study the correlation between the indicators of physicomechanical properties of the soil trace of the constant technological track and their influence on the traction properties of the bridge agricultural tool. Methods. Experimental studies were conducted according to generally accepted and developed methods and involved the use of modern control and measuring equipment. Results. As the dimensionless criterion for assessing the rolling of the wheel of a specialized wide-track agricultural tool, taking into account its tangential force and resistance, the coefficient fk of its rolling resistance is taken in the work. Based on experimental researches and processing of the received data on the personal computer analytical expressions of regressive dependences of the coefficient of rolling resistance of wheels on humidity, hardness, and density of a trace of a constant technological track are created and their graphic charts are constructed. The results of experimental studies have shown that the physicomechanical properties of the soil in the traces of a constant technological track and the coefficient of rolling resistance of agricultural tools have a fairly high correlation. Conclusions. As a result of the carried out researches, it is established that the physicomechanical properties of a soil trace of a constant technological track essentially influence energy expenses on overcoming forces of resistance to the rolling of wheels of agricultural tools. With an increase in the soil of moisture of the permanent technological track from 10 to 45%, the coefficient of rolling resistance increases from 0.06 to 0.1 (66%). And since the charges of power to overcome the forces of resistance during motion are proportional to the value of fk, the same percentage increases in energy consumption. With increasing hardness from 2.8 to 4.5 MPa and density from 1.3 to 1.6 g·cm–3 of the soil trace, the rolling resistance coefficient of the wheels of the agricultural tool decreases from 0.1 to 0.06. Also, with the increase in the hardness of the soil trace of the constant technological track from 2.5 to 4.0 MPa, the value of the coefficient of volumetric crushing of the soil — from 4.0 to 45.0 MPa. With the further increase in the hardness of the soil trace, the coefficient of volumetric shrinkage of the soil almost does not increase. To reduce the coefficient of rolling resistance of the wheels when moving on the ground track of a constant technological track, it is necessary to form it as an undeformed bearing surface, then the rolling resistance has the least value.

Racecar Longitudinal Control in Unknown and Highly-Varying Driving Conditions

This paper focuses on racecar longitudinal control with highly-varying driving conditions. The main factors affecting the dynamic behavior of a vehicle, including aerodynamic forces, wheel rolling resistance, traction force resulting from changing tire-road interaction as well as the occurrence of sudden wind gusts or the presence of persistent winds, are considered and assumed to have unknown models. By exploiting the theory on delayed input-state observers and using measurement data about the vehicle and wheel speeds, a dynamic filter that allows the online reconstruction of the above-mentioned unknown time-varying quantities is derived. Moreover, by exploiting the notion of effective tire radius, a reduced-degree-of-freedom model for the longitudinal vehicle dynamics is obtained, which is independent of the traction force and that enables, when used with the observer filter described above, an accurate speed control compensating for the resistance forces. One appealing feature of the proposed estimation and control method is that it requires no model information about such forces, for which, at the state-of-the-art, only heuristic approximations to be a-priori identified are available. Its effectiveness is shown via the simulation of scenarios where the car is required to execute aggressive maneuvers and the asphalt road surface abruptly changes from dry to wet, snowy, and icy. The evaluation also reveals that the proposed estimation technique outperforms standard solutions even in the presence of measurement noise.

Study on testing vehicle’s driving wheel output power

This paper describes the principle, test methods and test procedures of vehicle wheel power based on the chassis dynamometer, as well as analyzes the test methods and factors that affected the test results of the driving wheel rolling resistance. At the same time, through the analysis of the test data of several groups of real vehicles, some attempts have been made to explore practical and feasible methods for automobile power performance test under the current conditions in our country. The relevant conclusions can provide a reference for improving the level of automobile power performance test.

The Effect of Tractor Driving System Type on its Slip and Rolling Resistance and its Modelling Using Anfis

Abstract Pulling force required for operations such as tillage is a result of the interaction between the tractor’s wheel drive and soil surface limited by various factors, such as the rolling resistance and slip of the wheel drive. In this research, the traction performance of tractors with different driving systems (four-wheel drive, rear wheel drive, and front wheel drive) was investigated. Test parameters included different tractor forward speeds (1.26, 3.96, and 6.78 km·h−1), tire inflation pressures (170, 200, and 230 kPa), ballast weights (0, 150, and 300 kg), and aforementioned driving systems, as well as required drafts (2, 6, and 10 kN). For each experiment, two indices of slip and rolling resistance were measured. The results of this study showed that the four-wheel-driving system indicated a low slip at similar pulling forces. In order to achieve a low slip, the four-wheel driving system did not necessarily need to add the ballast weight or to reduce the inflation pressure. The four-wheel driving system showed lower rolling resistance than the other two systems. Slip and rolling resistance of wheels were predicted using an adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS). It was found that ANFIS had a high potential for predicting the slip (R 2 = 0.997) and rolling resistance (R 2 = 0.9893).

Determining If A Bike-mounted Aerodynamic Sensor Can Detect Changes In Wheel Rolling Resistance During Cycling With Different Tire Pressures Outdoors

Rolling resistance represents a key resistance force to overcome during cycling. This resistance force is calculated as the product of the coefficient of rolling resistance (Crr) and rider+bike system weight. Crr is influenced by a number of factors including tire pressure. Typically, Crr is measured in a laboratory situation but more recently, bike-mounted instruments have been developed that are mounted on a bike to measure Crr in the field. PURPOSE: To determine if a bike-mounted aerodynamic sensor is able to measure changes in Crr with changes in tire pressure while cycling outdoors. METHODS: A cyclist rode a road bike (combined mass 80.45 kg) equipped with an aerodynamic sensor to measure Crr (Aerolab). The bike-mounted sensor measures a number of parameters such as wind speed, global position system (GPS) data, cycling power, and air temperature, for example. Processing algorithms are used to generate Crr. For this experiment, tire pressure was manipulated in a manner that changes in Crr were expected. Specifically, three tire pressures were tested: 100, 70, and 40 PSI. Tire pressure was measured using a custom made valve system connected to a digital pressure gauge (Ashcroft Digital Gauge, 0.05% terminal point accuracy, 0-200 PSI range). The rider completed 2 trials per pressure condition with each trial consisting of a coast-down test. The rider reached a target velocity and then stopped pedaling. Data were recorded for at least 60 seconds for each trial. The rider maintained the same ride position for each trial. Data were processed using custom software to yield Crr per trial using an iterative algorithm that calculates Crr multiple times using different sections of data with corrections for air temperature. The research team member processing data was not aware of the conditions. Crr values were normalized such that the Crr during the 100 psi condition was set to 100%. RESULTS: Relative Crr values were 100±2.7% at 100 psi, 95.7±1.8% at 70 psi, and 119.6±2.7% at 40 psi. CONCLUSIONS: Using a bike-mounted aerodynamic sensor, changes in rolling resistance were detected when tire pressure was manipulated. However, confounding factors that could influence the calculation of Crr include the influence of subtle changes in rider position, yaw angle, and tire temperature, for example.

Evolutionary algorithms application for improving the tire rolling resistance based on Wismer–Luth model

Soil and tire interaction is a complex process that involves the exchange of variable stresses along the contact area of soil and tire. Despite this complexity, the description of this process in the form of mathematical models has long been of interest to the researchers. The same complexity has led the wheels and soil interaction patterns to be constantly evolving and optimizing. This evolution has coincided with the scientific progress of mathematics, modeling and computer until today. Nowadays, optimizing and predicting a model based on input variables using machine learning techniques and conventional evolutionary algorithms play an important role in predicting the relationships between input and output. These methods can be far better than the conventional statistical techniques. The modeling and prediction of wheel rolling resistance on the soil have many parameters. Using new techniques such as genetic, BAT and PSO algorithms to optimize them seems to be suitable approaches. The aim of this research is to investigate and optimize the parameters of the Wismer–Luth model using the evolutionary algorithms. To improve the model, the variables of multi-pass, forward velocity and depth of the cone index, are also incorporated to the Wismer–Luth model, and the corresponding parameters are optimized with the BAT algorithm. Analysis of experimental data showed that the correlation of the output of the proposed model with the experimental data is 0.87 where it is 0.77 for the Wismer–Luth model. Furthermore, experimental results in this study showed that there is a significant relationship between rolling resistance and multi-pass effect, neglected in most models.

Determination of rolling resistance coefficient based on normal tyre stiffness

The purpose of the article is to develop analytical dependence of wheel rolling resistance coefficient based on the mathematical description of normal tyre stiffness. The article uses the methods of non-holonomic mechanics and plane section methods. The article shows that the abscissa of gravity center of tyre stiffness expansion by the length of the contact area is the shift of normal road response. It can be used for determining rolling resistance coefficient. When determining rolling resistance coefficient using ellipsis and power function equations, one can reduce labor costs for testing and increase assessment accuracy.

Evaluation on Fatigue Life of Expressway Asphalt Pavement Based on Tire-Pavement-Subgrade Coupling Model

The fatigue failure has become one of the main failure modes in asphalt pavement of expressway. However, due to the material nonlinear of the tire, pavement and subgrade, the contact nonlinear of tire-pavement and the influence factors, such as the tire inflation pressure, rotation speed, wheel load, the values and distributions of contact stress between tire and pavement are extremely complex and affect the tensile stress and tensile strain, as well as affect the wear, deformation and fatigue life of pavement. The three dimensional (hereinafter referred to as 3D) finite element model of tire-subgrade-pavement structure was established, and the steady-stable rolling of tire and stress-dependent dynamic resilient modulus of subgrade soil were considered in the model．Based on the mixed Euler-Lagrange describtion, the steady-state finite element analysis were carried to indicate the mechanism of fatigue cracking of asphalt pavement, the influences of rolling resistance of wheel, friction coefficient, axle load, tire pressure and running velocity on fatigue lives were discussed based on the tensile strain fatigue prediction model. The results show that the fatigue life of pavement decreases with the increasing rolling resistance of wheel, friction coefficient, wheel load and tire pressure, and it does not obvisouly depend on the running velocity. The study could provide a reference for the design of the flexible asphalt pavement structure and the evaluation of pavement fatigue life.

Sinkage and rolling resistance of wheels

Our poor prediction capability on the sinkage and rolling resistance of wheels originates in the unreliable description of soil properties and the soil-wheel interaction. Some improvements in both have shown that the theoretical calculations may give results comparable with experimental observations. To determine soil properties, the “two wheel measuring method” is suggested. Further improvement possibilities have also been outlined.

Energy loss optimization of run-off-road wheels applying imperialist competitive algorithm

The novel imperialist competitive algorithm (ICA) has presented outstanding fitness on various optimization problems. Application of meta-heuristics has been a dynamic studying interest of the reliability optimization to determine idleness and reliability constituents. The application of a meta-heuristic evolutionary optimization method, imperialist competitive algorithm (ICA), for minimization of energy loss due to wheel rolling resistance in a soil bin facility equipped with single-wheel tester is discussed. The required data were collected thorough various designed experiments in the controlled soil bin environment. Local and global searching of the search space proposed that the energy loss could be reduced to the minimum amount of 15.46J at the optimized input variable configuration of wheel load at 1.2kN, tire inflation pressure of 296kPa and velocity of 2m/s. Meanwhile, genetic algorithm (GA), particle swarm optimization (PSO) and hybridized GA–PSO approaches were benchmarked among the broad spectrum of meta-heuristics to find the outperforming approach. It was deduced that, on account of the obtained results, ICA can achieve optimum configuration with superior accuracy in less required computational time.

Artificial Neural Network estimation of wheel rolling resistance in clay loam soil

Despite of complex and nonlinear relationships imparting soil–wheel interactions, however, logical, non-randomized, and manifold relations tackle to express and model the interactions which are valid for variety of conditions and are likely to be established whereas mathematical equations are restricted to present. A 3-10-1 feed-forward Artificial Neural Network (ANN) with back propagation (BP) learning algorithm was utilized to estimate the rolling resistance of wheel as affected by velocity, tire inflation pressure, and normal load acting on wheel inside the soil bin facility creating controlled condition for test run. The model represented mean squared error MSE of 0.0257 and predicted relative error values with less than 10% and high coefficient of determination (R2) equal to 0.9322 utilizing experimental output data obtained from single-wheel tester of soil bin facility. These rewarding outcomes signify the fitting exploit of ANN for prediction of rolling resistance as a practical model with high accuracy in clay loam soil. Derived data revealed rolling resistance is less affected by applicable velocities of tractors in farmlands nevertheless is much influenced by inflation pressure and vertical load. An approximate constant relationship existed between velocity and rolling resistance implying that rolling resistance is not function of velocity chiefly in lower ones. Increase of inflation pressure results in decrease of rolling resistance while increase of vertical load brings about increase of rolling resistance which was measured to be function of vertical load by polynomial with order of two model validated by conventional models such as Wismer and Luth model.

Investigating the effect of velocity, inflation pressure, and vertical load on rolling resistance of a radial ply tire

A single-wheel tester facility at Department of Agricultural Machinery of Urmia University was utilized to investigate the effect of velocity, tire inflation pressure, and vertical load on rolling resistance of wheel. A Good year 9.5L-14, 6 radial ply tire was used as the tester wheel on clay-loam soil and was installed on a carriage traversing the length of soil bin. Three inflation pressures of 100, 200, and 300kPa as well as three levels of velocity (i.e. 0.7, 1.4, and 2m/s) and five levels of vertical load applied on wheel (i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5kN) were examined. Covariance analysis (ANCOVA) of resulted data revealed that rolling resistance is less effected by applicable velocities of tractors in farmlands but is much influenced by inflation pressure and vertical load. An approximate constant relationship existed between velocity and rolling resistance indicating that rolling resistance is not a function of velocity particularly in lower ones. Moreover, it was observed that increase of inflation pressure results in decrease of rolling resistance. Additionally, increase of vertical load brings about increase of rolling resistance which was estimated to have polynomial relation with order of two. A model comprising tested variables was developed with relative high accuracy.

Study on Rolling Resistance of Wheel for Farm Use (I)

Study on Rolling Resistance of Wheel for Farm Use (I)

2P1-F10 小型自走式壁面移動ロボットの軌道追従制御

Wall-climbing robots can be used for some tasks such as painting, inspecting and cleaning of various walls. The typical wall-climbing robots use a magnet or a vacuum suction device for attracting with the wall. For a reliable task, the robots should follow a desired path accurately. However, the trajectory tracking on the vertical wall is not easy because of gravitaty and rolling resistance of wheels. In this paper, a trajectory tracking control for a skid steer type wall-climbing robot is proposed. The control law is a non-linear feedback one with compensation of gravity and rolling resistance of wheels. A window cleaning robot is used for an experiment of the trajectory tracking control. The experimental result confirms the validity of the proposed method.

Rolling resistance and rut formation by implement tyres on tilled clay soil

The rolling resistance and rutting incurred by towed flotation implement tyres were investigated on an arable clay soil in three different soil strength conditions. Three radial (600/55R26.5) and two bias ply (600/55–26.5) tyres were compared. Experimental wheel loads were in the 35.4–36.4 kN range. Tyre inflation pressures, representing typical field operation, and road transport applications were in 100–150 kPa and 150–200 kPa, respectively. Soil strength was determined from mean soil penetration resistance (CI 0–15, in the layer 0–15 cm) and mean cohesion ( C 0–10, 0–10 cm). Wheel rolling resistance evaluated by the coefficient of rolling resistance (CRR), rut depth (RD), driving speed, and field gradient were measured with the tyres mounted on a test trailer hitched to a tractor. CI 0–15 and C 0–10 values predicted the sinkage and the resistance to travel motion on clay soil reasonably well. When the CI 0–15 was less than 1 MPa and C 0–10 was below 100 kPa, CRR and RD increased rapidly. On average, CRR was 20% lower for the radials than the bias plies. In soft conditions (CI 0–15 ⩽ 0.48 MPa), the radials produced 15% shallower ruts than bias plies, and the CRR was lower and RD shallower with field inflation pressures than with road pressures used. According to our results, flotation tyres can be recommended to agricultural machines when the implement or trailer is used in soft soil conditions.