Role Salience Research Articles

Relationship between work-family conflict and job satisfaction: The moderating effect of gender and the salience of family and work roles

Work-family conflict has become an issue of particular concern to today’s businesses. Its prevalence among employees and the negative consequences of this conflict for one’s job satisfaction has led it to become one of the problems that managers and directors have to deal with most. Although there have been researches into the relationship between work-family conflict and job satisfaction, few studies have analysed the role of gender in this relationship. The objectives of this study are to analyse the moderating role of gender and the salience of family and work roles in the work-to-family conflict and general job satisfaction, while the job’s characteristics are controlled. 162 workers from a Spanish public organisation took part in the study. The results from the regression analysis confirms the moderating effect of gender on the relationship between work-to-family conflict and job satisfaction, such that women show a lower level of job satisfaction than men. However, the salience of the family and work roles were not found to have a moderating effect on the aforementioned relationship, neither in the case of men nor in women. The results are discussed in the context of the theory of role identity salience and the gender role theory, as well as the possible cultural effects. Key words: Work-family conflict, job satisfaction, gender, salience of family role, salience of work role, Spain.

Sex, Gender, and the Work-to-Family Interface: Exploring Negative and Positive Interdependencies

This study of full-time managers and professionals examined whether variables selected from theories of the psychology of gender as well as identity, boundary, and role theories explained effects of sex on work-to-family conflict and “positive spillover.” Women experienced higher positive spillover than men, primarily because they were higher in femininity. Although women did not experience different levels of conflict than men, individuals who scored higher on measured family role salience, which was positively related to femininity, experienced lower levels of conflict. Role segmentation not only reduced conflict but also had the unintended consequence of reducing positive spillover.

Anticipated work-family conflict: effects of role salience and self-efficacy

ABSTRACT The current study investigated how male and female university students’ self-efficacy and their role salience contributed to the variance in their anticipated work-family conflict (WFC). Participants comprised 387 unmarried students (mean age 24 years). Cluster analysis yielded four profiles of participants who differed in their attributions of importance to work and family roles: work oriented, family oriented, dual oriented, and no orientation. Of the women, 30.1% were family oriented, versus only 18.9% of the men. The work oriented participants anticipated the highest levels of WFC and demonstrated the lowest efficacy to manage this conflict. The family oriented participants anticipated the lowest levels of WFC and demonstrated the highest efficacy to manage it. Implications were raised for research and career counselling.

Sex, Gender, and Decisions at the Family → Work Interface

What is the linkage between individuals’ sex and the interface between their work and family roles? The answer to this question is by no means straightforward as gender roles, work roles, and family roles evolve. To address the question, the authors examine the influence of family-domain factors on work-domain decisions and their linkages to sex and gender. According to the logic of appropriateness, a theory of decision making, people develop and apply rules in decision-making situations that are consistent with their personal identities. The authors identify three broad types of decisions in the work domain—role entry, participation, and exit decisions—that may be influenced by factors in the family domain according to such rules. Next, they review the literature on the linkage between individuals’ sex and an example of each of these types of decisions: the role entry decision about whether to start a business, the role participation decision about the number of hours to devote to one’s job or business, and the role exit decision about whether to quit a job. The review suggests that (a) family-domain factors mediate effects of sex on work-domain decisions and (b) sex moderates relationships between family-domain factors and work-domain decisions. Based on the review, the authors offer a model of the linkages among sex, family-domain factors, and work-domain decisions that incorporates constructs from theories of the psychology of gender (femininity) and identity theories (family role salience). Finally, the authors offer guidelines for future theory and research to test and extend the model.

Role Salience, Social Support, and Work—Family Conflict Among Jewish and Arab Female Teachers in Israel

Conceptualizing career development in a cultural and contextual framework, this study examined within-gender differences in role salience and work— family conflict (WFC) among 101 Jewish and 99 Arab female teachers (aged 23-64 years) from central Israel. The contribution of social support to women’s conflict was also examined. Results highlighted various differences: in contrast to expectations, Jewish teachers demonstrated higher spouse and parent values than Arab teachers, who demonstrated higher work values and work commitment. As expected, Jewish women reported higher levels of WFC compared to their Arab colleagues. Support systems in Jewish culture were related to lower WFC but not in Arab culture. Theoretical and practical implications emphasize the need for culture-sensitive models of work—family relations and for career counseling interventions.

Transitioning between work and family roles as a function of boundary flexibility and role salience

This study investigates the manner in which people separate their work and family roles and how they manage the boundaries of these two important roles. Specifically, we focus on how role flexibility and salience influence transitions between roles. Results indicate that the ability and willingness to flex a role boundary and role salience are important predictors of transitions between roles. The joint effects of role flexibility and salience on transitions provided interesting results regarding the importance of role boundary flexibility and of the increasing importance attached to the family role. Limitations, suggestions for future research, and implications are discussed.

The Effects of Family Versus Career Role Salience on the Performance of Family and Nonfamily Firms

This study investigated how the relative salience of business owners' family and career roles might influence performance outcomes in family versus nonfamily firms. Using data from 156 family and nonfamily firms, the data show that family firm status moderates the relationships such that the career role salience of a business owner is positively and more strongly associated with performance outcomes in family firms than in nonfamily firms. Conversely, the data show that family firm status negatively moderates the relationship between the business owner's family role salience and expansion activities. Implications for theory and practice, as well as future research directions, are discussed.

Identity and spirituality: A psychosocial exploration of the sense of spiritual self.

The authors examined the structure and content of adults' sense of spiritual identity by analyzing semistructured interviews with 13 spiritually devout men and 15 devout women, ages 22 to 72. Individuals' responses to the Role-Related Identity Interview (G. T. Sorell, M. J. Montgomery, & N. A. Busch-Rossnagel, 1997b) were content analyzed and rated on the role-related spiritual identity dimensions of role salience and flexibility. Individuals were categorized as spiritually foreclosed, achieved, or in moratorium, on the basis of their motivational, affective, self-evaluative, and behavioral investments in spiritually defined roles and their reflectiveness about and behavioral changes in role-related spiritual identity. Similarities and differences within and between spiritual identity status groups were observed, suggesting a variety of ways that spiritual identity provides a sense of continuity as well as a domain for adult developmental change.

Work–life balance: A review of the meaning of the balance construct

AbstractAlthough the term work–family/life balance is widely employed, an agreed definition of this term has proved elusive. Instead, an array of definitions and measures populate the literature. The variety of work–life definitions and measures provide limited value for both the theoretical advancement of the construct and for practical human resource (HR) interventions. In this article, we review six conceptualisations of work–life balance found in the literature: (1) multiple roles; (2) equity across multiple roles; (3) satisfaction between multiple roles; (4) fulfilment of role salience between multiple roles; (5) a relationship between conflict and facilitation; and (6) perceived control between multiple roles. Based on our review of this research we identify the two primary features of the work–life balance definitions and propose a new definition of this construct.

Work–life balance: A review of the meaning of the balance construct

AbstractAlthough the term work–family/life balance is widely employed, an agreed definition of this term has proved elusive. Instead, an array of definitions and measures populate the literature. The variety of work–life definitions and measures provide limited value for both the theoretical advancement of the construct and for practical human resource (HR) interventions. In this article, we review six conceptualisations of work–life balance found in the literature: (1) multiple roles; (2) equity across multiple roles; (3) satisfaction between multiple roles; (4) fulfilment of role salience between multiple roles; (5) a relationship between conflict and facilitation; and (6) perceived control between multiple roles. Based on our review of this research we identify the two primary features of the work–life balance definitions and propose a new definition of this construct.

Role Salience and Anticipated Work-Family Relations Among Young Adults With and Without Hearing Loss

This study examined the effect of hearing status on role salience and anticipated work–family relations among 101 unmarried young adults aged 20–33 years: 35 with hearing loss (19 hard of hearing and 16 deaf) and 66 hearing. Participants completed the Life Role Salience scale, anticipated conflictual relations scale, anticipated facilitory relations scale, and a background questionnaire. The deaf participants demonstrated a significantly higher level of commitment to work but anticipated the significantly lowest level of conflict. Hearing status was a significant variable in predicting anticipated conflictual relations among all participants. Mode of communication was a significant predictor of conflictual relations among the hearing loss group. Implications for theory and practice were discussed.

A Longitudinal, Naturalistic Inquiry of the Adaptation Experiences of the Female Expatriate Spouse Living in Turkey

Using a one-year longitudinal-panel design, 32 American, female, expatriate spouses who relocated to Ankara, Turkey, were interviewed at just-arrived, 3-, 6-, 9-, and 12-months stages. This project utilized mixed methods research design. Results of the quantitative, repeated measures component is reported in Bikos et al. (2007, this issue). Results of the Naturalistic Inquiry provided rich, thick descriptions of eight themes as they unfolded through the first year of this expatriate assignment. The resulting themes included predeparture preparation, settling in, impact of expatriation on the wife's life roles, social emotional functioning, approaches to coping, supportive systems, language, and interaction with the host culture. The authors interpreted the results in light of the life role salience and career adaptability constructs of Super's Life-Span, Life-Space approach to career development. In addition, results of this project integrated well with previous research about expatriate spouse adjustment.

Predictors of distress in women being treated for infertility

Many studies cite infertility as highly stressful, yet women's responses to infertility are quite variable. Lazarus and Folkman's cognitive phenomenological theory of stress, coping, and appraisal may explain this variability. Gender role identity, career role salience, and societal pressure for motherhood are variables hypothesised to affect a woman's cognitive appraisal of infertility, thus influencing distress level. Female participants (N = 119) were recruited through the NYU Fertility Clinic and Resolve, a support organisation for individuals faced with infertility. Participants completed questionnaires assessing gender characteristics, career role salience, social pressure for motherhood, cognitive appraisal, and distress. Many respondents (42%) reported clinically significant levels of distress. A path analysis assessed the effects of gender‐role identity, career role salience, social pressure for motherhood, and cognitive appraisal on distress. The model accounted for 32% of the variance in distress. Women experiencing social pressure for motherhood viewed infertility as more stressful, women identifying with more positively valued instrumental gender role traits reported less distress, and women who endorsed more negatively valued instrumental gender role traits and cognitively appraised infertility as stressful reported greater distress.

Gender, Internalization of Expressive Traits, and Expectations of Parenting

This study examined parental role salience, expectations and intentions, and the extent to which the internalization of gender associated traits may be related to these parenting variables within emerging adults. Childless undergraduates at a western Canadian university (N = 236; 119 women) completed a self-report questionnaire. As predicted, role salience and expectations were positively correlated with intentions. Internalization of expressive/feminine traits, but not instrumental/masculine traits, was positively correlated with all three parenting variables, although gender moderated this relation. While femininity was unrelated to the expectations of women, men possessing more expressive traits held more positive views than their less expressive male counterparts. The implications of these findings are discussed in terms of the parental roles anticipated by young women and men.

Explaining sex differences in managerial career satisfier preferences: The role of gender self-schema.

Using survey data from 400 managers, the authors examined whether gender self-schema would explain sex differences in preferences for status-based and socioemotional career satisfiers. Female gender self-schema, represented by femininity and family role salience, completely mediated the relationship between managers' sex and preferences for socioemotional career satisfiers. However, male gender self-schema, represented by masculinity and career role salience, did not mediate the relationship between managers' sex and preferences for status-based career satisfiers. As expected, male managers regarded status-based career satisfiers as more important and socioemotional career satisfiers as less important than female managers did. The proposed conceptualization of male and female gender self-schemas, which was supported by the data, enhances understanding of adult self-schema and work-related attitudes and behavior.

Career Assessment With Native Americans: Role Salience and Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy

One hundred thirty-seven Native American college students currently attending a tribal college were surveyed regarding their life-role salience and career decision-making self-efficacy. Also included was an examination of students’ reason for attending college. Findings revealed that although participation, commitment, and value expectations for the work role were more salient than the role of community service across these same three dimensions, home/family participation and commitment emerged as more salient than work participation and commitment. Correlational analysis indicated that (a) value expectations for work; (b) student role participation, commitment, and value expectations; and (c) community service commitment and value expectations all significantly correlated with career decision-making self-efficacy. Participants’ decisions to attend college suggested that they regard education as important to a good life and are motivated to attend college to help their family and community and to escape the high unemployment rate on the reservation.

Relation of Maternal Role Concepts to Parenting, Employment Choices, and Life Satisfaction Among Japanese Women

Japanese women are often described as heavily invested in the role of mother, yet young women in contemporary Japan are increasingly likely to postpone or opt out of marriage and child rearing. To understand the psychological dynamics of parenting among Japanese women who have chosen to become mothers, we examined the relation of maternal role salience beliefs, personal maternal role commitment, and parenting self-efficacy to life satisfaction, number of children, and employment status. Survey data were obtained from 116 urban Japanese women with children in the 2nd grade. Mothers with more children expressed greater personal role commitment. Those who had sought employment were less likely to hold strong maternal role salience beliefs. Life satisfaction was predicted by having more children, feeling efficacious as a parent, and being employed. These findings suggest that even in a society characterized by strong normative expectations for women, women's life satisfaction and choices about family life and employment are related to individual beliefs, attitudes, and judgments about their role.

Identity and spirituality: A psychosocial exploration of the sense of spiritual self.

The authors examined the structure and content of adults' sense of spiritual identity by analyzing semistructured interviews with 13 spiritually devout men and 15 devout women, ages 22 to 72. Individuals' responses to the Role-Related Identity Interview (G. T. Sorell, M. J. Montgomery, & N. A. Busch-Rossnagel, 1997b) were content analyzed and rated on the role-related spiritual identity dimensions of role salience and flexibility. Individuals were categorized as spiritually foreclosed, achieved, or in moratorium, on the basis of their motivational, affective, self-evaluative, and behavioral investments in spiritually defined roles and their reflectiveness about and behavioral changes in role-related spiritual identity. Similarities and differences within and between spiritual identity status groups were observed, suggesting a variety of ways that spiritual identity provides a sense of continuity as well as a domain for adult developmental change.

Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Career Assessment

The authors present an overview of the discussion and presentations that took place concerning techniques and assessment in educational and vocational guidance at the recent symposium International Perspectives on Career Development. Two topics were examined. The 1st focused on the theoretical foundations of and psychometric issues in career assessment. The 2nd focused on the practice of career assessment and the use of career measures, particularly in cultural contexts for which the measures were not originally developed. Participants in the 2004 symposium, International Perspectives on Career Development, that was sponsored by the International Association for Educational and Vocational Guidance and the National Career Development Association explored issues and outcomes that differentiate career development practices in different nations. One of the designated discussion groups focused on issues of techniques and assessment in educational and vocational guidance. In this article, we report on the general discussion and specific presentations of participants from eight countries: Canada, China, Croatia, Portugal, South Africa, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The discussion and presentations on techniques and assessment in career psychology addressed a wide range of issues that can be grouped into two main areas: the development of career measurement and the practice of career assessment. The first area explored both the theoretical foundations of career assessment and the psychometric issues in test development. The discussion on the practice of career evaluation and assessment focused on the issues of qualitative and quantitative career assessment and the use of career tests in cultural contexts for which they were not originally developed. These two areas of discussion and presentation are described below. They are followed by a summary of the group's conclusions concerning career assessment. The Development of Career Assessment The broader level of group discussion and individual presentation initially focused on the nature of career assessment and the definition of culture. Defining the terminology seemed a logical step in setting parameters for the group's discussion. A core issue that emerged was whether career assessment is psychological or psychosocial in nature. Glavin (2004; the third author of this article) differentiated between psychological tests, which represent an internal measurement of a specific personality trait, type, or competency, and psychosocial tests, which measure an individual's ability to adapt to the environment. He argued that career measures should be considered psychosocial tests in that they are based on assessing relationships between social factors and the individual. As such, career tests measure an individual against externally defined goals, such as career maturity, career adaptability, life role salience, and career self-efficacy beliefs. This discussion of the definition of career tests was pivotal to the ensuing discussions. At the core of this debate was Glavin's viewpoint that the constructs measured by career tests are not endogenous to all human beings. If one accepts this argument, then career constructs are not universal and, consequently, should not be generalized across cultural groups. It could be argued that subsequent presentations offered considerable support for this differential definition of assessment. For instance, Rossier (2004) reported on the cross-cultural equivalence of several personality inventories in frequent use. Rossier's paper examined personality traits in Burkina Faso, a sub-Saharan African country, and in Switzerland. His results indicated that the structural equivalence of tests is affected by the theoretical differences on which the tests are based. More specifically, when tests are based on theories that ascribe the origins of traits as biologically based (such as McCrae & Costa's, 1999, five-factor theory), then partial and full structural equivalence can be observed across cultural groups. …

Relationship Quality with Parent, Daughter Role Salience, and Self-Esteem of Daughter Caregivers

This study examined the effects of two aspects of relationship quality with parent (relationship strain and affective closeness) on daughter caregivers' self-esteem, and whether their effects are moderated by daughter role salience. Cross-sectional data from 137 married daughter caregivers with children were analyzed. Hierarchical regression analysis shows that relationship strain has negative effects on the daughters' self-esteem, regardless of daughter role salience, whereas the positive effects of affective closeness on self-esteem are stronger for daughters whose daughter role is salient than for those less salient. The findings have implications for how practitioners can help married daughters manage relationship strain with their parents, examine the personal meaning of their daughter role, and bolster their own self-esteem while engaged in parent care.