Role Of Outcome Expectancies Research Articles

Virtual reality exposure therapy for reducing social anxiety associated with stuttering: the role of outcome expectancy, therapeutic alliance, presence and social presence

Introduction: Although several trials have demonstrated the effectiveness of Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy (VRET) for reducing social anxiety, there is little understanding about the factors that lead to symptom reduction across different treatment designs. Such factors may include outcome expectancy, therapeutic alliance, presence (perception of being in the virtual environment) and social presence (perception of interacting with others). We report on findings from a pilot trial of VRET targeting social anxiety in people who stutter, and examine the association of these four factors with treatment outcome.Methods: People who stutter reporting heightened social anxiety (n = 22) took part in the trial after being recruited via online adverts. Remotely delivered VRET was administered to participants in three sessions across three weeks. Each session targeted both performative and interactive anxiety. A virtual therapist helped participants to engage with treatment strategies, whilst also guiding them through exercises.Results: Findings showed that presence and social presence were both negatively related to changes in fear of negative evaluation between pre- and post-treatment. However, presence, outcome expectancy and therapeutic alliance were positively related to changes in social anxiety symptoms. Furthermore, outcome expectancy and therapeutic alliance were quadratically related to fear of negative evaluation change. Nevertheless, the effect of presence on social anxiety, and the effects of presence and therapeutic alliance on fear of negative evaluation must be interpreted with caution as these were not large enough to reach sufficient statistical power. Therapeutic alliance did not mediate the relationship between outcome expectancy and treatment outcome.Discussion: These findings suggest that the current VRET protocol affected social anxiety and fear of negative evaluation differently. We discuss how presence may underlie these mixed associations. We also suggest that the unexpected positive effects on social anxiety symptoms may have resulted from insufficient treatment strategies which inadvertently encouraged maladaptive learning.

Verifying the usefulness of the theory of planned behavior model for predicting illegal use of online content: the role of outcome expectancies and social loafing

BackgroundCurrently, laypeople can earn profit by producing content; therefore, it should be noted that the unauthorized use of intellectual creations or possessions can cause legal issues and undermine the producers’ desire to create. This study verified the usefulness of the theory of planned behavior (TPB) model for predicting the illegal use of online content among South Korean college students and examined the roles played by outcome expectancies and social loafing in this model.MethodsThe participants, 369 male and female Korean college students, were aged between 18 and 31 years (M = 22.12, SD = 2.33). We measured the illegal use of online content and the factors of the TPB model, as well as outcome expectancies and social loafing with regard to participants’ illegal use of online content. Correlational analysis, stepwise regression analysis, path analysis for the TPB model, and analyses of the moderated model were performed using SPSS and AMOS.ResultsAll TPB factors, outcome expectancies, and social loafing were positively correlated with the illegal use of online content. Stepwise regression analysis showed that intention, social loafing, outcome expectancies, and perceived behavioral control were significant predictors of the illegal use of online content. A TPB model, including a direct path from perceived behavioral control to behavior, was validated to analyze the illegal use of online content. This model was found to be moderated by outcome expectancy.ConclusionThis study suggests that the TPB is useful for predicting the illegal use of online content and that outcome expectancies and social loafing also play an important role in the illegal use of online content among college students. The findings of this study provide useful information for future research and could aid in preventing illegal online content use among adolescents and young adults.

THE ROLE OF OUTCOME EXPECTATIONS AND SUBJECTIVE TASK VALUE IN SELECTING A STEM MAJOR AMONG WOMEN AND MEN: IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE AND DEFINING STEM

For decades, attaining gender equity and equality in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) fields, along with increasing the number of STEM professionals in the U.S., have been interconnected goals that have received significant attention from scholars, researchers, and various national organizations. Projections still indicate an overall shortage of STEM professionals, including the underrepresentation of women in many STEM fields. Given such trends, scholars have recognized the need to study a variety of factors associated with students' entry into and persistence in STEM fields. In this study, we analyzed and compared the STEM major selection processes of 4,120 women and men who participated in the High School Longitudinal Study of 2009 and who, as college students, selected a STEM major. To do this, we constructed and analyzed structural equation models that describe the relationships between the expectancy of success and subjective task value constructs described by expectancy-value theory and students’ selecting a STEM major in one of three categories (core STEM subjects, medical STEM subjects, and peripheral STEM subjects). In so doing, we were able to discern (a) differences in STEM major selection processes among women and among men, depending on how STEM is categorized, and (b) differences between women and men within each of the three STEM categorizations. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.

Chinese mothers’ intent to disclose the HIV status to their children: the role of outcome expectations and self-efficacy

ABSTRACT The present study examined the association between outcome expectations, self-efficacy, and intention to disclose HIV status to children among HIV-positive women in China, and the moderating and mediating role of self-efficacy on the association between outcome expectations and intention to disclose. A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 179 HIV-positive mothers who had at least one living child aged >5 years and had not yet disclosed their HIV status to her oldest child. Results from hierarchical regressions revealed that after adjusting for socio-demographic and medical variables, negative outcome expectations had a negative association (β = −0.22), while disclosure self-efficacy had a positive association (β = 0.43) with an intention to disclose HIV. The moderation effect of self-efficacy on the association between outcome expectations and intention to disclose HIV was not significant. Results from structural equation modeling showed that self-efficacy mediated the association between negative/positive outcome expectations and intention to disclose HIV. Findings support the importance of outcome expectations and self-efficacy and also the mediating role of self-efficacy in HIV disclosure among HIV-positive mothers in the Chinese context.

Sleep-Related Cannabis Expectancy Questionnaire (SR-CEQ): Initial Development among College Students

ABSTRACT A growing body of literature demonstrates that cannabis is commonly used to aid sleep. Consistent with social cognitive theory, there is a vast literature documenting the role of outcome expectancies in the initiation, progression, and maintenance of cannabis use. Despite the readily endorsed belief that cannabis will help improve sleep, sleep-related expectancies have not been included in widely used cannabis expectancy measures. This study aimed to develop and provide preliminary psychometric evaluation of the Sleep-Related Cannabis Expectancy Questionnaire (SR-CEQ). Cross-sectional data were drawn from N= 166 college students (M age = 18.83 [SD = 1.06; range: 18–24], 34% male, 71% White). Students completed an online survey including demographics and the 12-item SR-CEQ. Exploratory Factor Analysis identified two factors representing Negative Sleep-Related Cannabis Expectancies and Positive Sleep-Related Cannabis Expectancies. Confirmatory Factor Analysis demonstrated adequate fit of the two-factor measurement model to observed data (SRMR = 0.08). Students endorsed greater positive (versus negative) sleep-related cannabis expectancies on average, and male students reported significantly greater negative expectancies (but not positive expectancies) compared to female students. The SR-CEQ is the first cannabis expectancy assessment tool specific to sleep-related cannabis outcomes. Ongoing psychometric validation of the SR-CEQ is needed to assess convergent/predictive validity and replicate findings among relevant clinical samples.

Why Do They Keep Swearing? The Role of Outcome Expectations between Descriptive Norms and Swearing among Korean Youths: A Test of the Theory of Normative Social Behavior

Through the Theory of Normative Social Behavior, this article tests whether outcome expectations (i.e., benefits-to-self and anticipatory socialization) moderate the relationship between descriptive norms and swearing behavior and intentions. A study was conducted among Korean high school students (N = 483), and the results provide considerable support for the moderating role outcome expectations. When adolescents believed that there are high personal benefits, they were more likely to be influenced by the behaviors practiced by their peers. Similarly, beliefs that swearing may enhance socialization are likely to influence adolescents to adhere to their normative perceptions.

Knowledge of parental nonsuicidal self-injury in young people who self-injure: the mediating role of outcome expectancies

ABSTRACT Many dysregulated behaviours, used to cope with intense or unwanted emotion, can be learned in an interpersonal context. Nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) is potentially one such behaviour. In this study we explored whether knowing a parent self-injured was related to NSSI among young adults, and whether such an association was associated with thoughts and beliefs about NSSI. Specifically we tested the roles of anticipated outcomes of NSSI, and belief in the ability to resist urges to self-injure, in this relationship. A sample of 669 university students, aged between 17 and 30 years (M = 20.77, SD = 2.31), completed self-report measures of the constructs of interest. Of the sample 43 (6.4%) were aware of a parent self-injuring; this was associated with a threefold increase in history of NSSI reported by participants. This relationship was mediated by expectations that NSSI would relieve negative affect, and weaker expectations of resulting physical pain. The relationship between pain expectancies and NSSI was moderated by self-efficacy to resist NSSI. The results suggest that knowledge of parental NSSI may be a risk factor for NSSI among their children, and that cognitions about NSSI could be a potential mechanism explaining this relationship.

The role of outcome expectancy in therapeutic change across psychotherapy versus pharmacotherapy for depression

The role of outcome expectancy in therapeutic change across psychotherapy versus pharmacotherapy for depression

The role of outcome expectancy in therapeutic change across psychotherapy versus pharmacotherapy for depression

BackgroundPatient outcome expectancy - the belief that treatment will lead to an improvement in symptoms – is linked to favourable therapeutic outcomes in major depressive disorder (MDD). The present study extends this literature by investigating the temporal dynamics of expectancy, and by exploring whether expectancy during treatment is linked to differential outcomes across treatment modalities, for both optimistic versus pessimistic expectancy. MethodsA total of 104 patients with MDD were randomized to receive either cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) or pharmacotherapy for 16 weeks. Outcome expectancy was measured throughout treatment using the Depression Change Expectancy Scale (DCES). Depression severity was measured using both the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale and Beck Depression Inventory-II. ResultsLatent growth curve models supported improvement in expectancy across both treatments. Cross-lagged panel models revealed that both higher optimistic and lower pessimistic expectancy at mid-treatment predicted greater treatment response in pharmacotherapy. For CBT, the associative patterns between expectancy and depression differed as a function of expectancy type; higher optimistic expectancy at pre-treatment and lower pessimistic expectancy at mid-treatment predicted greater treatment response. LimitationsThe sample size limited statistical power and the complexity of models that could be explored. ConclusionsResults suggest that outcome expectancy improved during treatment for depression. Whether outcome expectancy represents a specific mechanism for the reduction of depression warrants further investigation.

Social Cognitive Antecedents of Fruit and Vegetable Consumption in Truck Drivers: A Sequential Mediation Analysis

ObjectiveTo examine a mechanism by which social cognitive factors may predict fruit and vegetable consumption in long-haul truck drivers. MethodsDietary self-efficacy, positive outcome expectancies, and intentions were assessed in 148 Australian truck drivers, and 1 week later they reported their fruit and vegetable consumption. A theory-guided sequential mediation model was specified that postulated self-efficacy and intention as mediators between outcome expectancies and behavior. ResultsThe hypothesized model was confirmed. A direct effect of outcome expectancies was no longer present when mediators were included, and all indirect effects were significant, including the 2-mediator chain (β = .15; P < .05; 95% confidence interval, 0.05–0.32). Truck drivers who expected benefits from dietary change, felt confident about being capable to do so, and formed an intention were likely to report larger amounts of fruit and vegetable intake. Conclusions and ImplicationsThe results suggest that the role of outcome expectancies and self-efficacy are important to consider for understanding and predicting healthy eating intentions in truck drivers.

Predicting gambling behaviour and problems from implicit and explicit positive gambling outcome expectancies in regular gamblers

Outcome expectancies are the positive or negative effects that individuals anticipate may occur from engaging in a given behaviour. Although explicit outcome expectancies have been found to play an important role in gambling, research has yet to assess the role of implicit outcome expectancies in gambling. In two studies, we investigated whether implicit and explicit positive gambling outcome expectancies were independent predictors of gambling behaviour (i.e. amount of time spent and money risked gambling; Study 1) and problem gambling severity (Study 2). In both studies, implicit positive gambling outcome expectancies were assessed by having regular gamblers (N = 58 in Study 1; N = 96 in Study 2) complete a gambling outcome expectancy reaction time (RT) task. A self-report measure of positive gambling outcome expectancies was used to assess participants' explicit positive gambling outcome expectancies. Both the RT task and self-report measure of positive gambling outcome expectancies significantly contributed unique as well as shared variance in the prediction of self-reported gambling behaviour (Study 1) and problem gambling severity (Study 2). Findings from the current research point to the importance of using both direct and indirect assessment modes when examining the role of outcome expectancies in gambling.

Predicting Student Academic Performance

The biggest challenge in nurturing an academic community is encouraging knowledge sharing among its members. Literature on communities, however, has paid less attention on the role of outcome expectations in encouraging the knowledge sharing behaviors. This study examines the effects of Personal Outcome Expectations (POE) and Community-related Outcome Expectations (COE) on the knowledge sharing behaviors of students and its consequent impact on their academic performance. In order to study these relationships a survey of university students was conducted. Based on structural equation modeling approach, it was found that COE have significant impact on knowledge sharing among the students.

FRI0463-HPR Correlation between self reported physical activity and outcome expectations of physical activity on health and symptoms in patients with rheumatoid arthritis

BackgroundPhysical inactivity in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a major problem with increased risks of co-morbidity and premature death. In order to address this problem we need more knowledge...

The role of outcome expectations in the generation of the feedback‐related negativity

The feedback-related negativity (FRN) is thought to index activity within the midbrain dopaminergic reward-learning system, with larger FRN magnitudes observed when outcomes are worse than expected. This view holds that the FRN is an index of neural activity coding for prediction errors, and reflects activity that can be used to adaptively alter future performance. Untested to date, however, is a key prediction of this view: the FRN should not appear in response to negative outcomes when outcome expectations are not allowed to develop. The current study tests this assumption by eliciting FRNs to win and loss feedback in conditions of participant choice, participant observation of computer choice, and, critically, simple presentation of win or loss feedback in the absence of a predictive choice cue. Whereas FRNs were observed in each of the conditions in which there was time for an expectation to develop, no FRN was observed in conditions without sufficient time for the development of an expectation. These results provide empirical support for an untested but central tenet of the reinforcement learning account of the genesis of the FRN.

The Role of Outcome Expectations and Self-Efficacy in Explaining Physical Activity Behaviors of Individuals with Multiple Sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a debilitating neurological disease with few successful interventions available for alleviating symptoms. Physical activity (PA) may aid in alleviating symptoms; however, most individuals with MS are inactive. To promote PA within this population, it is important to identify key theoretical correlates of PA specific to them and then target these in PA interventions. The purpose of this study was to examine the role of self-efficacy and outcome expectations in explaining PA. Seventy-six participants completed a baseline questionnaire measuring these variables and a telephone follow-up 1 month later concerning PA behaviors. Regression analyses showed that self-efficacy (β = .41) and outcome expectations (β = .27) directly influenced PA, and that self-efficacy directly influenced outcome expectations (β = .28). Therefore, to promote PA within this population, interventions should target both self-efficacy and outcome expectations. Individuals with MS need to better understand the benefits of PA and how it can alleviate or improve their symptoms.

The Role of Outcome Expectations and Attitudes on Decisions to Seek Professional Help.

Two studies examined the predictors of seeking psychological services. Study 1 examined the role of attitudes in mediating the relationship between 11 psychological factors and intent to seek help for 3 psychological problems. The results demonstrated that (a) the psychological factors and attitudes predicted 62% of the variance in intent to seek help for interpersonal problems and 18% of the variance for drug problems and (b) attitudes toward counseling mediated most of the relationships between the different psychological factors and help-seeking intent. Study 2, in turn, demonstrated that (a) anticipated outcomes of talking with a counselor were associated with the use of psychological services and (b) anticipated risks of disclosing emotions were salient for those having experienced a distressing event.

A review of the outcome expectancy construct in physical activity research

Outcome expectancy is a central construct in social cognitive models of health behavior widely used as frameworks for physical activity research. This article provides a review of the outcome expectancy construct and its application to research on physical activity. Theoretical articles describing definitions and placement of outcome expectancy within social cognitive models, as well as empirical research on outcome expectancy and physical activity, were reviewed. Self-efficacy theory, the transtheoretical model, the theory of planned behavior, and protection motivation theory differ in their labeling and conceptualization of outcome expectancy but unanimously include expected outcomes of behavior. Preliminary empirical investigation of the role of outcome expectancy in understanding physical activity has yielded mixed results. Positive outcome expectancy appears to be more predictive of physical activity in older adults than in young to middle-aged adults, and personal barriers appear to be the most predictive subtype of negative outcome expectancy. In addition, a small number of studies indicate relations between outcome expectancy and other theoretical variables, including behavioral intention, stage of change, and self-efficacy. Further research on the role of outcome expectancy is necessary to design effective physical activity interventions. New directions in outcome expectancy research could involve (a) expanding the conceptualization of outcome expectancy to include expected outcomes of sedentary behavior and affective responses to physical activity, (b) further examination of potential moderators of the relation between outcome expectancy and physical activity (such as outcome value and outcome proximity), (c) distinguishing between the role of outcome expectancy in behavior onset versus behavior maintenance, (d) examining outcome expectancy as a mechanism of change in environmental intervention approaches, and (e) further analysis of interrelations between outcome expectancy and other social cognitive variables.

Influence of depression and gender on smoking expectancies and temptations in alcoholics in early recovery.

Rates of smoking are much higher among persons with alcohol problems and a history of depressive illness than persons without those disorders. Drug use in general may be motivated by outcome expectancies such as negative affective reduction and relaxation. Persons with a history of depression may smoke as a means of mood management. The role of outcome expectancies and major depression in maintaining smoking behavior in a high-risk group of smokers, such as recovering alcoholics, has not been thoroughly examined. Using a cross-sectional design, 161 abstinent alcohol-dependent men and women who smoked were administered the Inventory to Diagnose Depression (IDD), a self-report instrument for assessing current and lifetime depression according to DSM-IV criteria, and measures of alcohol dependence, nicotine dependence, smoking motives, and situation-defined temptations to smoke. As expected, smoking motives and temptations were moderated by history of depression. Alcoholics with a history of depression were more likely to smoke with the expectancy of negative affect reduction than those with no prior major depression. Using multiple regression, negative affective reduction, addiction, and severity of past depression were the strongest predictors of current temptations to smoke. These results suggest that individuals with a combined history of alcoholism and major depression are at a high risk to use smoking as a means of mood enhancement.

The Role of Outcome Expectancies in Participation Motivation

The Role of Outcome Expectancies in Participation Motivation

Effects of scene manipulation on role-play test behavior

A number of investigations have demonstrated that by manipulating components of the role-play test procedure, subjects' behavior is differentially affected. An area that has not been widely studied using role-play paradigms is the effect of outcome expectancy on interpersonal behavior. This study evaluated the relationship between expectancy and behavior by manipulating role-play test scene descriptions. Specifically, additional information was added to descriptions portraying the confederate as easily approachable (positive expectancy) or difficult to approach (negative expectancy). Role-played interactions were subsequently rated on a variety of verbal and nonverbal indices of social skill. Data indicated that subjects were less socially effective in responding during negative expectancy scenes. Likewise, subjects were rated as somewhat more socially effective during positive expectancy scenes. In addition, high-anxious subjects (as determined through self-report inventories) appeared to be more responsive to manipulation than their low-anxious peers. Results are discussed in terms of (1) the role of outcome expectancy in interpersonal behavior and (2) the need for further refinement of role-play tests.