International Role Research Articles

Perceptions of China in the Age of COVID-19: Findings from Pakistan's Media Spheres

The COVID-19 pandemic served as a test for China's soft power, drawing diverse reactions from its friends and foes. This article investigates the impact of the COVID-19 outbreak on China's image, delving specifically into sentiments within one of the most China-friendly nations in the world, Pakistan. This study conducts a qualitative content analysis of Pakistan's news media and X sphere and investigates sentiments towards China and Chinese vaccines from 2020 to 2021. Media narratives were found to be distinctly more negative towards Chinese vaccines than China in the aftermath of the pandemic. An assessment of dominant media narratives offers possible explanations for the divergence in sentiments, mainly attributing them to “China's support of Pakistan,” “China's domestic containment,” “China's international role,” and “conspiracy theories and misinformation.” This article provides insights into China's vaccine diplomacy, its soft power dynamics, and public sentiment sway within its most amicable partnership in the international arena.

The Role of International Law in Safeguarding Indonesia’s Sovereignty: A Case Study of the North Natuna Sea

Purpose:This study aims to explore and understand the role of international law in reinforcing Indonesia's sovereignty, particularly in resolving the North Natuna Sea territorial dispute, while considering the relevant principles of international law.Methodology:The methodology employed in this research is qualitative descriptive. It aims to provide an in-depth description of the role of international law in safeguarding Indonesia's sovereignty through the analysis of relevant secondary sources and available case studies.Findings:This study demonstrates the vital role of international law in protecting Indonesia's sovereignty, particularly in maritime disputes like those over the North Natuna Sea. It highlights the importance of frameworks like UNCLOS in supporting Indonesia's territorial claims and using international legal instruments for diplomacy and dispute resolution. The research also reveals Indonesia's challenges in enforcing these laws, particularly concerning illegal fishing, while emphasizing the need for stronger domestic enforcement aligned with international standards to safeguard maritime sovereignty.Implication:This research provides valuable insights for academicians, practitioners, and policymakers by deepening their understanding of international law's role in protecting national sovereignty and promoting effective maritime governance. It emphasizes the need for aligning domestic laws with international standards. Additionally, the study reminds fishermen and maritime professionals to exercise caution when crossing territorial waters, highlighting the risks of non-compliance and legal consequences.

China “striving for achievement” in the humanitarian space?

ABSTRACT The scholarship on Chinese foreign policy has extensively discussed the shift from ‘keeping a low profile’ to ‘striving for achievement’ under President Xi Jinping. However, humanitarian engagement has been under-appreciated in the discussion. This article attempts to address this gap by examining how China’s humanitarian policy and actions have become different, which is pertinent to understanding the country’s changing international role. Drawing on the extant studies on foreign policy change, this article proposes a four-level framework to analyse changes in humanitarian policy, which include quantitative adjustment, program modification, goal change, and reorientation. The four levels do not have causal relations, but minor adjustments normally accompany the major ones. The analysis finds that there have been changes in terms of quantity, program, and goals but no reorientation in China’s humanitarian engagement. Specifically, quantitative variations suggest that China’s share in global humanitarian spending has not changed substantively, regardless of recent increases. Program modifications are most observable among the shifts, which indicate the growing importance of humanitarian aid as a diplomatic instrument. Minor adjustments in humanitarian policy goals reflect China’s cautiously active disposition to humanitarian work. The changes combined point to Beijing’s aspiration for moderate achievement in global humanitarian governance.

India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor in strategic connection with the Abraham Accords and the Three Seas Initiative

Adopted by India, UAE, Saudi Arabia, the EU, and the US in September 2023, the India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC) is becoming strategic for international trade. The research focuses on Israel, the United Arab Emirates, and Central and East Europe (CEE) through IMEC and the Three Seas Initiative (3SI). In September 2023, the 3SI expanded towards Greece, which maintains strategic trade relations with Israel and the UAE. Through the Abraham Accords and IMEC, the Three Seas Initiative is linked with India, enabling a new North-South route. The research aims to answer the following question: What is the geopolitical connection between the Abraham Accords, the India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor, and the Three Seas Initiative, and what is their impact on the role and position of the critical states for those initiatives? For this purpose, the theory of adaptation and international roles has been applied. The study is based on qualitative and quantitative methods and empirical research from 13 years of analysis, direct observation, and the author’s participation in many initiatives. The proposed project is the first research on the Middle East, India, and CEE, which will impact new strategic trade routes. It should inspire other researchers to further in-depth analyses.

No Longer Neutral: The ECB’s Geopoliticization of the International Role of the Euro

While the euro has, since its creation, been the world’s second most important currency, the ECB has long depoliticized the international role of the euro by proclaiming a neutral stance. However, as this article explains, since 2019, the ECB has embraced currency internationalization and framed the issue in geopolitical terms. This policy change reflects a response to a changed international political environment after 2018 and it has led the ECB to seek closer political coordination regarding external economic policy. As the international role of the euro has become a concern for the EU’s broader geoeconomic turn, it may, however, become difficult for the ECB to reconcile its political independence with its more geopolitical view of currency internationalization.

The Global South Air transport Belt: A catalyst for sustainable tourism and economic growth

This paper explores specific technical dimensions of a Global South Air Transport Belt concept, emphasizing international air transport's pivotal role in fostering global trade, stimulating tourism, promoting people-to-people exchange, and enhancing supply chain efficiency. A notable disparity exists between the air transport infrastructures of the Global North and the Global South. Furthermore, the Carbon Offset Scheme for International Aviation poses an obstacle to the air transport advancement in developing nations. This market-based initiative, designed to cap aviation emissions from 2020, has the potential to impede the actual international network connections expansion in developing countries. As an alternative, this paper advocates for the adoption of operational measures, the utilization of sustainable aviation fuels, and the implementation of technological advancements. This strategy aligns with the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals. The paper highlights the potential for sustainable development through the air transport infrastructure expansion in developing countries, focusing particularly on the BRICS nations. Creating a cohesive Global South Air Transport Belt will facilitate the growth of tourism and foster economic development across the participating nations. Such an initiative seeks a sustainable pathway toward inclusive economic growth and social progress for humanity.

AFGHANISTAN'S POLITICAL CHANGE AND THE BELT AND ROAD INITIATIVE: AN OVERVIEW OF THE SITUATION

This article explores the intricate relationship between Afghanistan's evolving political landscape and the ambitious Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Situated at the crossroads of geopolitical complexities, Afghanistan has undergone enduring political transformations, prompting a critical review of its international role. As the nation grapples with transformative political journeys, this study scrutinizes the interplay between internal changes and the broader goals of the BRI. Initiated by China, the BRI represents an unprecedented effort in global connectivity and economic cooperation. The article outlines the dynamics of Afghanistan's political scenario and its potential impact on the BRI, revealing the complex relationship between political changes and the future trajectory of this ambitious initiative within Afghanistan's borders. Central to this exploration is the Belt and Road Initiative, a historic initiative spanning continents with the aim to reshape global trade patterns and strengthen economic cooperation. Originating from China, the BRI vision goes beyond infrastructure development, encompassing diplomatic, economic, and cultural dimensions. Understanding the goals and mechanisms of the BRI is fundamental to assessing how Afghanistan's political transformation might align with this transformative initiative. This article aims to dissect the point where Afghanistan's political trajectory converges with the aspirations of the BRI. By detailing the complex interplay between these two dynamic forces, the study explores synergies, conflicts, and potential implications for Afghanistan's geopolitical position and the broader goals of the BRI. As a scholarly endeavor, it contributes nuanced insights to the ongoing discourse on global politics, international cooperation, and the transformative potential of large-scale infrastructure projects in regions undergoing significant political change. Keywords: Afghanistan, Political Change, Belt and Road Initiative, Geopolitics, Infrastructure Development, Economic Dynamics, Regional Cooperation.

РОЛЬ И МЕСТО ЖЕНЩИН ЭТНИЧЕСКИХ СООБЩЕСТВ В КОНСТРУИРОВАНИИ ИДЕНТИЧНОСТИ В КАЗАХСТАНЕ

This article explores the intricate relationship between Afghanistan's evolving political landscape and the ambitious Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Situated at the crossroads of geopolitical complexities, Afghanistan has undergone enduring political transformations, prompting a critical review of its international role. As the nation grapples with transformative political journeys, this study scrutinizes the interplay between internal changes and the broader goals of the BRI. Initiated by China, the BRI represents an unprecedented effort in global connectivity and economic cooperation. The article outlines the dynamics of Afghanistan's political scenario and its potential impact on the BRI, revealing the complex relationship between political changes and the future trajectory of this ambitious initiative within Afghanistan's borders. Central to this exploration is the Belt and Road Initiative, a historic initiative spanning continents with the aim to reshape global trade patterns and strengthen economic cooperation. Originating from China, the BRI vision goes beyond infrastructure development, encompassing diplomatic, economic, and cultural dimensions. Understanding the goals and mechanisms of the BRI is fundamental to assessing how Afghanistan's political transformation might align with this transformative initiative. This article aims to dissect the point where Afghanistan's political trajectory converges with the aspirations of the BRI. By detailing the complex interplay between these two dynamic forces, the study explores synergies, conflicts, and potential implications for Afghanistan's geopolitical position and the broader goals of the BRI. As a scholarly endeavor, it contributes nuanced insights to the ongoing discourse on global politics, international cooperation, and the transformative potential of large-scale infrastructure projects in regions undergoing significant political change. Keywords: Afghanistan, Political Change, Belt and Road Initiative, Geopolitics, Infrastructure Development, Economic Dynamics, Regional Cooperation.

АНАЛИЗ ПОЛИТИК ВЗАИМОДЕЙСТВИЯ С ДИАСПОРОЙ ЗА РУБЕЖОМ: ОПЫТ ДЛЯ КАЗАХСТАНА

Abstract. This article explores the intricate relationship between Afghanistan's evolving political landscape and the ambitious Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Situated at the crossroads of geopolitical complexities, Afghanistan has undergone enduring political transformations, prompting a critical review of its international role. As the nation grapples with transformative political journeys, this study scrutinizes the interplay between internal changes and the broader goals of the BRI. Initiated by China, the BRI represents an unprecedented effort in global connectivity and economic cooperation. The article outlines the dynamics of Afghanistan's political scenario and its potential impact on the BRI, revealing the complex relationship between political changes and the future trajectory of this ambitious initiative within Afghanistan's borders. Central to this exploration is the Belt and Road Initiative, a historic initiative spanning continents with the aim to reshape global trade patterns and strengthen economic cooperation. Originating from China, the BRI vision goes beyond infrastructure development, encompassing diplomatic, economic, and cultural dimensions. Understanding the goals and mechanisms of the BRI is fundamental to assessing how Afghanistan's political transformation might align with this transformative initiative. This article aims to dissect the point where Afghanistan's political trajectory converges with the aspirations of the BRI. By detailing the complex interplay between these two dynamic forces, the study explores synergies, conflicts, and potential implications for Afghanistan's geopolitical position and the broader goals of the BRI. As a scholarly endeavor, it contributes nuanced insights to the ongoing discourse on global politics, international cooperation, and the transformative potential of large-scale infrastructure projects in regions undergoing significant political change. Keywords: Afghanistan, Political Change, Belt and Road Initiative, Geopolitics, Infrastructure Development, Economic Dynamics, Regional Cooperation.

Zombie International Currency: The Pound Sterling 1945–1971

This paper examines the international role of sterling during the Bretton Woods era and argues that it was not a competitor to the U.S. dollar. I construct a novel dataset to measure the reserve role of sterling in Europe and sterling area countries. The postwar reserve role of sterling was limited to the sterling area and was artificial as this area was built as a captive market. I document how British authorities imposed exchange controls, commercial threats, and economic sanctions on sterling area countries to compel them to keep their foreign exchange reserves in sterling.

International Role Perspective of Indonesia’s Participation in the Second United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF II) 1975–1977

This article analyzes Indonesia's envisioned international role as it maintained its deployment of armed forces as part of the Garuda Contingent in the Second United Nations Emergency Forces (UNEF II) mission from 1975 to 1977, despite concurrently conducting military operations in Portuguese Timor. This research uses role theory as an analytical framework to explain Indonesia's objectives and role in deploying peacekeepers abroad during the greatest military deployment since independence. By applying a qualitative-deductive approach, the final results of this article indicate that Indonesia has sent the Garuda VIII Contingents to UNEF II as part of Indonesia's commitment to world peace and supporting the principles of the United Nations. In addition, Indonesia is striving to strengthen its diplomatic position and gain legitimacy from international states. Despite the conflict in Portuguese Timor, Indonesia remains consistent in fulfilling its role and responsibilities as a state of international peace and security. This research provides a better understanding of the motivation and role that Indonesia wants to take on one of its peacekeeping missions and its contribution to regional and global stability.

Legal Aspects of Environmental Sustainability and Climate Change: The Role of International and National Legislation

Legal Aspects of Environmental Sustainability and Climate Change: The Role of International and National Legislation

ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF CRYPTO TRADING ON CARBON EMISSIONS USING PATH ANALYSIS

In parallel with the growing interest in cryptocurrencies, the relationship between crypto trading and CO2 is critical to drive financial markets and environmental sustainability efforts. The aim of this study is to analyse the impact of crypto trading on carbon emissions (CO2) through the mediating roles of international trade and energy use. Within the scope of the study, path analysis was carried out using the 2007-2021 period data of the top 20 countries with high crypto trade volume. A model proposal was presented to examine the relationships between the variables used in the study and the necessary analyses were carried out. The results of the analysis show that crypto trade volume has a positive and significant effect on carbon emissions. It is also concluded that international trade and energy use mediate the relationship between crypto trade and carbon emissions. It is seen that crypto mining activities and cryptocurrencies lead to an increase in energy use and environmental impacts. At this point, it is important for countries to switch to renewable energy sources and to regularly report and monitor the impact of cryptocurrency mining activities on carbon emissions.

Sudanese totalitarianism: violent jihad as a state policy

The case of Sudanese violent jihadism is a curious one, starting from 1881–1899 Mahdist’s uprising. Since the 1956 independence, the history of Sudan has been marked by civil wars taking place in various parts of its huge territory; violence under the outwardly jihadist banner culminated in the 1990s. The Islamic state used violent jihad, by the army and by militias, as a way to impose unitary rule and shari’a law upon a significantly diversified population. Jihad was thus called for three purposes: to mobilise resources for fight with non-Muslim southern Sudanese; to consolidate the Muslim north internally in the context of the struggle of the totalitarian regime against opposition and struggles within the regime itself; and also to define the international role of Sudan as a supporter of radical Islamic movements. The case of Sudan is thus one in which violent jihad was part of the state ideology and an instrument of policy.

Third Conference on the International Roles of the U.S. Dollar

On May 20 and 21, 2024, the Federal Reserve Board and the Federal Reserve Bank of New York jointly hosted the Third Annual International Roles of the U.S. Dollar Conference. The conference brought together researchers, practitioners, and policymakers to understand how changes in the global economic and financial landscape may affect the central role of the dollar.

Geopolitics and the global economy

Hyperglobalization is dead, but globalization is very much alive. It is being reshaped by loosening economic and financial links between the United States and China. The extent of their decoupling should not be exaggerated, however. The two economies remain deeply interdependent, and their interdependence is being preserved by a re-routing of trade and investment through third countries. Similarly, it is important not to exaggerate the impact on the international role of the dollar, if for no other reason that for the time being there is no viable alternative.

Stanowisko Niemiec wobec reformy Wspólnej Polityki Bezpieczeństwa i Obrony UE (2016-2022)

GERMANY’S POSITION TOWARDS THE REFORM OF THE EU’S COMMON SECURITY AND DEFENCE POLICY (2016-2022) The aim of this article is to analyze Germany’s position towards the development of CSDP between 2016 and 2023, that is, from the enactment of the EU Global Strategy to the publication of the Strategic Compass. For the CDU/CSU-SPD (2013-2017 and 2017-2021) and SPD-Green-FDP (2021-2022) coalition governments, deepening security and defense integration was a means to advance European integration. The reasons for Germany’s increased interest in developing CSDP from 2016 onwards, regardless of the international context (Brexit, Trump’s presidency), were linked to the political elite’s growing aspirations to develop a more influential international role for Germany. However, hesitation was evident. European defense was seen as an instrument for aiding European integration and as a factor for activating the Franco-German engine. However, France – in strong contrast to Germany – saw the development of a common defense as a means to achieve strong European autonomy in the sense of independence from the US. In Germany, it was feared that this would damage the traditional relationship with NATO. Acceptance of strategic autonomy was therefore limited by the primacy of the Atlantic orientation, which was even revitalized because of the war in Ukraine. Berlin’s ambivalent position on CSDP was also due to the lack of political will to act militarily, constitutional constraints, that is, the strong role of parliament and the influence of a restrained political-military culture.

International Criminal Justice and Lithuanian Experience

Abstract The article deals with the laws of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes, and the status of victims of occupations in Lithuania. In addition, the article discloses Lithuanian state policy, society’s cultural approach to atrocity crimes, and support for victims. The article draws attention to how the concept of genocide has been constantly expanded in Lithuania. The international role of Lithuania in the fight against genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes is emphasized.

International Law: Regulation of Conflicts and International Relations

Objective: In the backdrop of escalating military confrontations and worsening economic and environmental challenges worldwide, this research aims to delve into effective systems for managing international conflicts and optimizing the global security framework. Theoretical framework: The study delves into the integration of legal frameworks within nations engaged in hostilities, examining key institutions influencing the regulation of international conflicts. It analyzes the evolution of conflicts in Ukraine and Israel, elucidating the involvement of legal institutions in regulating these conflicts. Methods: The research utilizes qualitative and quantitative approaches. It scrutinizes scholarly publications, evaluates prevailing strategies employed by states in conflicts, and assesses major geopolitical entities' support for such conflicts. It synthesizes insights from diverse disciplines, including international law, political science, and international relations. Results and conclusion: This research underscores international law's role in regulating conflicts through diplomatic frameworks, conflict oversight, and treaty enforcement despite challenges in politically charged environments. Case studies of Ukraine and Israel highlight the complexities of applying international law to modern conflicts. Research implications: The study highlights the need to reform the legal framework of international organizations like the European Union to enhance conflict management efficacy. It emphasizes the importance of interdisciplinary research in developing more effective legal frameworks and strategies for conflict resolution and peacekeeping. Originality/value: This research contributes to understanding the dynamic interplay between law and politics in conflict resolution. It identifies areas for further research, including the role of international organizations in peacekeeping and the intersection of conflict regulation with other branches of international law.

Political long‐termism and the European Union: Five research questions for the future

AbstractThis article introduces the concept of political long‐termism, defined as the conscious choice to prioritise the future consequences of today's political actions over their short‐term benefits and emphasises its relevance in the realm of European Studies. It contends that the European Union (EU), in theory, possesses the potential to address creeping crises more effectively than its member states, while acknowledging the varying degrees of support for political long‐termism within different EU institutions. The article advocates for additional research to explore the EU and international organisations' role in fostering political long‐termism, an area that has seen limited empirical investigation. To do so, it proposes five research questions as a starting point to establish political long‐termism as a subdiscipline of European Studies. As such, it aims to set the agenda by shedding light on the intertemporal aspect of EU politics.