Gender Role Identity Research Articles

Fragmentation, Fluidity, and Transformation

The results of a small group of children studied through ages six through eleven suggest that latency is no longer an accurate term to describe middle childhood and preadolescence. This longitudinal research suggests a more nonlinear process than has previously been documented in psychoanalytic research and supports a dynamic systems approach to development. Self structures break down and remain in an ongoing state of non-linear development. Without stable structural organization, sexual and aggressive thoughts and feelings are less contained and less differentiated throughout this period of development. Gender role identity is in a continuous state of fluidity during middle childhood. While both boys and girls experience gender role fluidity, the meaning of male and female gender identifications and the expression of sexual and aggressive feelings differ for boys and girls.

Influences of observer sex, facial masculinity, and gender role identification on first impressions of men's faces.

Evaluations of male faces depend on attributes of the observer and target and may influence future social and sexual decisions. However, it is unknown whether adherence to hypertraditional gender roles may shape women's evaluations of potential sexual partners or men's evaluations of potential competitors. Using a photo task, we tested participants' judgments of attractiveness, trustworthiness, aggressiveness, and masculinity of male faces altered to appear more masculine or feminine. Findings revealed that higher hypermasculinity scores in male observers were correlated with higher attractiveness and trustworthiness ratings of the male faces; conversely, higher hyperfemininity scores in female observers were associated with lower ratings on those traits. Male observers also rated the faces as more aggressive than did female observers. Regarding ratings by face type, masculinized faces were rated more aggressive than feminized faces, and women's ratings did not discriminate between altered faces better than men's ratings. These results suggest that first impressions of men can be explained in part by socioculturally- and evolutionarily-relevant factors such as the observer's sex and gender role adherence, as well as the target's facial masculinity.

Study on Male Nurses' Gender Stereotype and Job Satisfaction

Purpose: This study was conducted to investigate gender stereotype and job satisfaction, and to identify the relationship between gender stereotype and job satisfaction in male nurses. Method: The participants were 165 male nurses who worked in the Seoul, Gyeonggi and Daejeon areas. Data were collected from August 31th, 2009 to October 15th, 2009. A survey questionnaire was used to measure demographics, gender-role identity, gender stereotype and job satisfaction. Data were analyzed using SPSS/Win 12.0 version. Results: The mean score for gender stereotype was 2.81 points out of a possible 5. There were statistically significant differences in gender stereotype by general characteristics such as career in the current department (F=5.249, p=.007) and position (t=2.547, p=.012). The scores for gender stereotype were significantly higher in the group with less than five years in the current department and in the staff nurse group. The mean score for job satisfaction was 2.95 out of a possible 5. There was a significant negative correlation between gender stereotype and job satisfaction. Conclusions: Development of educational programs is required to improve the gender stereotype.

An Exploratory Evaluation of the Cognitive-Active Gender Role Identification Continuum

Individual beliefs and expectations regarding gender roles influence interpersonal behavior. If family therapists ignore or avoid discussions regarding gender roles, change may ultimately be inhibited. The Cognitive-Active Gender Role Identification Continuum (CAGRIC) is a framework that may facilitate a therapist's discussion of gender roles and the ways in which gender role expectations impact their clients’ relationships. Using data from the 2002 International Social Survey Program module on “Family and Changing Gender Roles,” this study examines the gender role classifications proposed by the CAGRIC model and the influence of gender role beliefs and behaviors on relationship satisfaction. Data from Australia, Brazil, Israel, Japan, Russia, Spain, and the United States are used to test the clustering and congruence hypotheses of the CAGRIC model. Results suggest support for the clustering hypothesis of the model, especially in Western countries.

Cultural aspects in social anxiety and social anxiety disorder

To examine cultural aspects in social anxiety and social anxiety disorder (SAD), we reviewed the literature on the prevalence rates, expressions, and treatments of social anxiety/SAD as they relate to culture, race, and ethnicity. We further reviewed factors that contribute to the differences in social anxiety/SAD between different cultures, including individualism/collectivism, perception of social norms, self-construal, gender roles, and gender role identification. Our review suggests that the prevalence and expression of social anxiety/SAD depends on the particular culture. Asian cultures typically show the lowest rates, whereas Russian and US samples show the highest rates, of SAD. Taijin kyofusho is discussed as a possible culture-specific expression of social anxiety, although the empirical evidence concerning the validity of this syndrome has been mixed. It is concluded that the individual's social concerns need to be examined in the context of the person's cultural, racial, and ethnic background in order to adequately assess the degree and expression of social anxiety and SAD. This has direct relevance for the upcoming DSM-V.

Fiction, Fashion, and Function Revisited: An Introduction to the Special Issue on Gendered Body Image, Part II

Continuing the theme of our special issue (Calogero and Tylka, Sex Roles, 63, 1-5. 2010), we present a collection of novel studies that detail how gendered experiences of the body constrain and impact body image. Specifically, Part II of the special issue explores gendered body image from vantage points of intersectionality and diversity—importantly recognizing that culturally-prescribed appearance ideals for women and men combine with multiple individual variables and identities (e.g., gender role identification, developmental stage, culture and cultural identification, family environment, sexual orientation, and personality) to mold body image. Each study advances our understanding of how individual difference and identity variables, such as the above, shape the experience of gendered body messages in western societies. To facilitate the presentation of the studies, we organized this research into three streams. The first stream explores how gendered messages are inscribed onto the body in childhood and speaks to the stability of gendered body image throughout adolescence and adulthood. The second stream investigates macro- (culture) and micro- (family environment) level body and appearance ideals that tend to shape body-related self-perceptions. The third stream illustrates the complex connection between gendered body ideals, the adoption of these ideals as a personal standard, and behaviors geared toward altering the body to become more consistent with these ideals. Part II concludes with a discussion of how these papers may be used to promote positive body image for girls/women and boys/men.

Child Sexual Abuse History and Feminine Gender-Role Identity

The association between child sexual abuse (CSA) and feminine gender-role identity was examined among 75 women with and 107 without a history of CSA. Undergraduates and hospital employees from a university in the Southern United States completed questionnaires on the internet. Three aspects of feminine identity were assessed, including how much participants identified with feminine versus masculine traits, endorsed stereotypes about women, and viewed themselves as meeting feminine self-standards. Participants with a history of CSA reported greater feminine self-discrepancy and endorsed more derogatory stereotypes about women than the comparison group. CSA was also linked to identifying with more feminine than masculine traits, but only among hospital employees. Results suggest that feminine identity is a meaningful construct to consider in the adjustment of CSA survivors.

The influence of child gender role and maternal feedback to child stress on the emergence of the gender difference in depressive rumination in adolescence.

Extensive research has linked a greater female tendency to ruminate about depressed feelings or mood to the gender difference in depression. However, the developmental origins of the gender difference in depressive rumination are not well understood. We hypothesized that girls and women may be more likely to ruminate because rumination represents a gender-stereotyped coping style that is associated with a more feminine gender role identity, maternal encouragement of emotion expression, and passive coping responses to stress. This study examined whether child self-reported gender role identity and observed maternal responses to child stress mediated the emergent gender difference in depressive rumination in adolescence. Maternal gender role attitudes were further hypothesized to moderate the relationship between child sex and mediating variables. Rumination and gender role identity were assessed in 316 youths and their mothers in a longitudinal study from age 11 to age 15; in addition, 153 mother-child dyads participated in an observational task at age 11 from which maternal responses to a child stressor were coded. Results indicated that greater feminine gender role identity among children and encouragement of emotion expression by mothers at age 11 significantly mediated the association between child sex and the development of depressive rumination at age 15, even after controlling for rumination at age 11. Maternal gender role attitudes significantly moderated the relationship between child sex and maternal encouragement of emotion expression, such that mothers who endorsed more traditional gender role attitudes themselves were particularly likely to encourage emotion expression in their daughters.

The influence of marianismo beliefs on physical activity of mid‐life immigrant Latinas: a Photovoice study

Readers should also refer to the journal's website at http://www.informaworld.com/rqrs and check volume 2, issue 2 to view the visual material in colour. Various explanations have been proposed to explain the low levels of physical activity among Latinas. Included is the construct marianismo, which describes the influence of cultural beliefs on gender role identity, including prioritisation of familial responsibilities over self‐care. The purpose of the study was to explore the influence of marianismo beliefs on participation in habitual and incidental physical activity among middle‐aged immigrant Hispanic women, using a community‐based participatory research approach and Photovoice methodology. Eight immigrant Hispanic women were given digital cameras and asked to photograph typical daily routines, including household activities, family/childcare and occupational responsibilities. Subjects then met to discuss their impressions. Data were analysed using Spradley's Developmental Research Sequence. Results revealed that a combination of marianismo beliefs and socioeconomic pressures appeared to negatively influence women's ability to participate in physical activity.

Gender Roles and Help-Seeking Behaviour

• Summary: Japanese gender roles are usually constructed according to tradition, and men are assumed to possess a traditional masculine identity. This article examines the aspects of gender role identity and the socio-demographic factors that predict help-seeking attitudes among Japanese men. Data on 265 Japanese males were measured using the GRCS and ATSPPH-S scales. • Findings: In general, the participants showed a moderate level adherence to traditional gender roles. They were sceptical about the efficacy of professional help and did not actively seek or welcome professional assistance. The findings support the argument that men’s orientation towards success, power and competition, and their restricted emotionality have a significant impact on their likelihood to seek professional help. • Application: The implications of these findings on psychological and counselling practices in Japanese society are also discussed.

Femininity and Depression Mediated by Social and Relational Aggression in Late Adolescence

Although studies have found a relation between the use of relational aggression and depressive symptomatology, there is less evidence for the relation of the role of gender identity in these processes. Consequently, this study investigated the roles of social and relational aggression and feminine gender role identity in depressive symptoms among late adolescent females. For this study, authors designed and tested a model through path analysis, which involved the variables of femininity, relational aggression, and social aggression. Six hundred and ninety-seven female college students completed the Beck Depression Inventory—Second Edition, the Young Adult Social Behavior Scale, and the Bem Sex Role Inventory. Results indicated that although femininity is unrelated to relational and social aggression, the use of social and relational aggression by more feminine late adolescent females relates to higher levels of depression in this sample.

Aligning Mars and Venus: The Social Construction and Instability of Gender Differences in Romantic Relationships

An evolutionary approach to gender differences in romantic relationships has pervaded the scientific literature, a trend mirrored in popular culture by Mars-Venus stereotyping. Three studies tested the accuracy of the popular notion that gender differences would emerge for the behaviors women and men want and receive from romantic partners in a sample of 375 students at a southeastern U.S. public university. Across the three studies, only one stable and robust gender difference emerged (desires regarding relationship support), as did several unstable gender differences. However, gender-role identity significantly accounted for nearly half of the variance in this one stable gender difference, challenging the viability of some evolutionary conceptualizations of gender differences and instead providing support for social constructionist and feminist perspectives.

A Study on Gender-role Identity and Cyber Delinquency in High School Students.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to explore gender-role identity and cyber delinquency in high school students. METHODS: Data were collected through self-administered questionnaires and analyzed by descriptive statistics, t-test, and ANOVA. The data survey was conducted with 1,208 conveniently selected high school students in Seoul, Gyung-gi and Chung-chung province. RESULTS: The cyber delinquency score was 38.94 and androgyny gender role identity was most common (34.0%). There were significant differences in cyber delinquency by academic year, gender, school record, economic status, educational background of parents, experiences of smoking, drinking, runaway, and gender-role identity. According to gender-role identity, the masculinity group showed highest cyber delinquency and the undifferentiated, androgyny, and femininity groups followed respectively. CONCLUSION: These findings are expected to make a contribution to creation of ideal interventions and to help discover early stage cyber delinquency in high school students as approached by gender role identity.

Gender role identity among Korean and American college students: Links to gender and academic achievement

Gender role identity (androgyny, masculinity, femininity), and its link to gender and academic achievement were examined across a sample of Korean and American college students. Results indicate that the androgyny group represented the largest proportion in the American sample, while the femininity group was the largest in the Korean sample. Korean students with masculinity achieved the highest score in Korean Sooneung Examination, followed by the androgyny group. In contrast, American students in the femininity group scored highest in the American College Testing examination. Academic performance in Korean male students differed across socioeconomic status but that of the American male students was influenced more by gender role identity than by socioeconomic status.

Reklamların ve Cinsiyet Kimliği Rolünün Tüketicilerin Satın Alma Davranışları Üzerindeki Etkisi

Gender is a segmentation criterion which has been used for a long time especially for the analyses of consumer behavior in traditional marketing. However an obligation has aroused to digress the traditional patterns in order to understand consumer behavior in our rapidly changing world. At this point, “gender identity role” concept which is frequently encountered in the literature reminded may help researchers in understanding complex consumer buying behavior. In this study, consumer’s gender identity’s impact on their response to advertisements and whether their socio-economic status levels’ effect their gender identities or not have been analyzed and some significant relations have been found.

Cancer Patients’ and Partners’ Psychological Distress and Quality of Life: Influence of Gender Role

Three hundred cancer patients and romantic partners of cancer patients were surveyed regarding their psychological distress, quality of life, and gender-role identity. Specifically, we considered whether cancer patients and partners differed in psychological distress, and quality of life as a function of their gender-role identities. Results indicated that individuals who ascribed to either a masculine or an undifferentiated gender-role identity, regardless of whether they were a patient or a partner, were more at risk for developing depressive symptoms as compared to those who ascribed to a feminine or androgynous gender-role identity. Also, partners of cancer patients were more at risk for developing anxiety symptoms as compared to cancer patients, regardless of gender-role identity. There were no significant differences among gender-role identities or role status in regard to quality of life.

Rape Myth Acceptance, Sexual Trauma History, and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

The prediction of false rape-related beliefs (rape myth acceptance [RMA]) was examined using the Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale (Payne, Lonsway, & Fitzgerald, 1999) among a nonclinical sample of 258 male and female college students. Predictor variables included measures of attitudes toward women, gender role identity (GRI), sexual trauma history, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptom severity. Using linear regression and testing interaction effects, negative attitudes toward women significantly predicted greater RMA for individuals without a sexual trauma history. However, neither attitudes toward women nor GRI were significant predictors of RMA for individuals with a sexual trauma history. PTSD did not moderate RMA's relationship with attitudes toward women and GRI. This study has clinical implications for treatment as well as for the development of rape myth-dispelling programs.

ГЕНДЕРНЫЙ СТЕРЕОТИП КАК ЛИНГВИСТИЧЕСКИЙ СИСТЕМООБРАЗУЮЩИЙ ФАКТОР СОЦИУМА

The article is devoted to the problem which lies at the basis of the linguistic and semantic continuum factor - social gender stereotype and its influence on speech-and-thought activities and gender-role identification of men and women.

The influences of gender role identity, and gender role attitude on career decision-making self-efficacy and career maturity

The influences of gender role identity, and gender role attitude on career decision-making self-efficacy and career maturity

An Exploratory Study of Women as Dominant Aggressors of Physical Violence in Their Intimate Relationships

In the last 20 years, research has emerged that suggests that women may be violent in intimate relationships. This article describes a qualitative study focusing on women who were classified as dominant aggressors of violence in their intimate relationships. Ten subjects participated in a detailed clinical interview and completed five written measures to examine the factors that led to their later aggression, including sociocultural factors, history of trauma, gender role identification, and intergenerational transmission of violence. Seven major themes emerged, including a history of victimization and trauma, substance abuse, and a history of violence across relationships and situations. These results suggest that the violence committed by dominantly aggressive women may be explained by an integrated conceptual framework of domestic violence.