Role Of Executive Functions Research Articles

The role of executive functions in symbolic and situational mathematical abilities

The role of executive functions in symbolic and situational mathematical abilities

Maternal alexithymia and caregiving behavior: the role of executive functioning -A FinnBrain Birth Cohort study.

The growing interest in parental cognition calls for research clarifying how cognition interacts with other parenting determinants to shape caregiving behavior. We studied the interplay between executive functioning (EF; cognitive processes that enable goal-directed thinking and behavior) and alexithymic traits (characterized by emotion processing/regulation difficulties) in relation to emotional availability (EA; the dyad's ability to share an emotionally healthy relationship). As EF has been reported to shape parents' ability to regulate thoughts and emotions during caregiving, we examined whether EF moderated the association between maternal alexithymic traits, and EA. Among 119 mothers with 2.5-year-olds drawn from the FinnBrain Birth Cohort, EF was measured with Cogstate tasks, alexithymic traits with the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20), and caregiving with the Emotional Availability Scales (EAS). More alexithymic traits on the TAS-20 subscale Externally Oriented Thinking (EOT) were associated with poorer caregiving in a hierarchical regression analysis (ΔR2 = 0.05, p = .01). A marginally significant moderation effect was found when adding the EOTxEF interaction term to the model (ΔR2 = 0.03, p = .06). These associations weakened slightly when controlling for education level. Estimation of simple slopes and a Johnson-Neyman figure indicated a significant association between higher EOT and lower EAS, that increased in strength as EF decreased from the group mean level. The influence of cognitive alexithymic traits on EA could be especially pronounced among low EF parents, but further studies are needed to support and extend the findings. The potential role of parental reflective functioning in this context is discussed.

EMOCIONALNI PROCESI KOD MALOLETNIH DELINKVENATA: KRIMINOLOŠKE IMPLIKACIJE

Juvenile delinquency represents a serious societal issue, and this paper focuses on the emotional aspects associated with it. Juvenile offences are estimated to constitute 7% of total criminal acts worldwide, with significant social consequences. Delinquents often come from dysfunctional families, abuse psychoactive substances, and experience psychiatric disorders, highlighting the complexity of this problem. The paper’s emphasis is on the emotional processes underlying delinquency, starting with emotional intelligence (EI). Research indicates a connection between low EI and juvenile delinquency, highlighting the role of emotion recognition and emotional regulation in this context. Various forms of delinquency may be linked to different aspects of emotional regulation, particularly impulsivity. The paper also considers psychopathy as a prominent personality characteristic closely related to juvenile delinquency, exploring the emotions that describe psychopathy. Factors such as manipulativeness, low empathy, and impulsivity are often present in juveniles with psychopathic traits. Additionally, in this paper, we are interested in Callous-Unemotional (CU) Taits. CU model is applied to describe the psychopathic tendencies of children and adolescents. The connection between emotions and cognition in the context of juvenile delinquency is illustrated through findings that discuss two dimensions of empathy: affective and cognitive, as well as the role of executive functions in delinquent behaviors. Finally, the importance of research seeking to explain the link between emotions and cognition is emphasized, particularly in the context of understanding personality traits responsible for such behaviors, such as psychopathy.

Translation and validation of the abbreviated Prefrontal Symptoms Inventory (PSI-20): A tool for assessing prefrontal symptoms in English-speaking populations.

This study introduces the translation and validation of the Prefrontal Symptoms Inventory (PSI) into English, aiming to provide an ecologically valid tool for assessing prefrontal symptoms in English-speaking populations in the United States. The prefrontal cortex (PFC) plays a crucial role in executive functions and other higher-order cognitive processes, with dysfunctions in this area associated with various cognitive, emotional and behavioural changes. Despite the existence of established tools like the Dysexecutive Questionnaire (DEX), the PSI addresses limitations found in the literature, presenting a novel ecologically valid tool for assessing prefrontal symptoms. The current study, involving 226 English-speaking participants, lays a foundational step for validating the PSI for use in a new population. Semi-confirmatory factorial analysis revealed a unidimensional structure, mirroring the Spanish version with robust fit indicators. Additionally, in assessing convergent validity, the abbreviated version (PSI-20) exhibited high correlations with DEX scores and moderate correlations with Psychological Stress Scale and General Health Questionnaire-12 scores. These findings align with previous reports, supporting the PSI-20's measurement of similar constructs related to prefrontal cortex activity and mental health components. The results of this study overall highlight the PSI's potential contribution to advancing prefrontal symptom evaluation in clinical and non-clinical settings.

The role of executive functions in adolescents' hypertext comprehension

The role of executive functions in adolescents' hypertext comprehension

The Effect of Loneliness on Work Engagement among Chinese Seafarers: Mediating Effects of Executive Functions.

In order to explore the effect of loneliness on work engagement and the role of executive function in Chinese seafarers, two studies were carried out. Study 1 conducted a questionnaire survey of 1231 active Chinese seafarers to examine the relationship between seafarers' loneliness, work engagement, and executive functions. Study 2 involved 177 seafarers as participants and created scenarios of seafarer work loneliness and non-loneliness using a recall paradigm, measuring components of executive function such as inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility, as well as willingness to engage in work. The findings indicate that seafarers' sense of loneliness can significantly negatively predict their work engagement, with inhibition control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility playing mediating roles. This provides new references and insights for alleviating the negative impact of loneliness on seafarers and enhancing their work engagement through cognitive approaches.

Maternal Depressive Symptoms and Risk for Childhood Depression: Role of Executive Functions

Offspring of mothers with depression are at increased risk for executive function (EF) deficits and later depressive symptoms, but limited studies examined EF as an intermediary pathway. This study examined the role of EF in mediating the association between maternal and child depressive symptoms. Data were from a longitudinal birth cohort consisting of 739 participants followed from the antenatal period for 12 years. Mothers completed the Edinburgh Perinatal Depression Scale at 26-28 weeks' gestation, at 3 months, and 24 months postpartum. At 8.5-10 years, children self-reported the Children's Depression Inventory-2. Task-based and parent-reported EF measures were collected at four timepoints between 3.5 and 8.5 years. Latent growth curve models examined antenatal depressive symptoms and its trajectory in contributing to cold (i.e., cognitive) and hot (i.e., affective) EF. We then assessed the extent to which EF mediated this association. Maternal depressive symptoms did not directly predict depressive symptoms in late childhood. Antenatal depressive symptoms predicted lower cold (ß = -0.13, 95% CI= -0.25, -0.004) and hot EF (ß = -0.26, 95% CI= -0.38, -0.15). Deficits in cold EF (ß = -0.26, 95% CI = -0.41, -0.11) acted as an intermediary path to depressive symptoms, while hot EF mediated the association between maternal and child depressive symptoms, forming an indirect path that accounted for 37.5% of the association. Deficits in hot EF may be a pathway in explaining the intergenerational transmission of depression. The finding suggests fostering EF skills as a potential strategy for at-risk children.

Effectiveness of Transcranial-Direct Current Stimulation in Individuals with Methamphetamine Use Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Context: Non-alcoholic substance abuse is a major public health concern worldwide, with methamphetamine being the second most widely used non-alcoholic substance globally, and Iran ranks fifth in methamphetamine addiction. To date, no approved pharmacological or non-pharmacological treatment by the Food and Drug Administration has been introduced for methamphetamine use disorder (MUD). Therefore, various treatment methods are currently utilized. One non-pharmacological approach that has gained attention is transcranial-direct current stimulation (tDCS), with various clinical evaluations focused on it. Objectives: The aim of this review is to assess the effectiveness of this method in improving symptoms in individuals with MUD. Methods: Databases were reviewed up to October 10, 2023, in both Persian and English languages, using PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar, Science Direct, Scientific Information Database (SID), and Noormags. Keywords were MUD, tDCS, Addiction, Craving, and Cognitive Function. Studies were included based on Population, Intervention, Comparison (sham or active control), Outcomes (craving or cognition), and Study Design (randomized controlled trial). Studies were excluded if they involved brain mapping or neuroimaging. Meta-analysis was conducted based on Standardized Mean Difference (SMD) to compare tDCS to sham intervention (P ≤ 0.05, two-tailed). Random effects models were used for individual MUD data from studies that reported end-of-treatment craving data. The risk of bias was calculated using the Cochrane Risk-of-Bias Tool (RoB-2), and meta-analysis was conducted using Comprehensive Meta-Analysis Software. Results: A total of 870 studies were initially identified; twenty-three studies (mean age 30.13 ± 6.67) were identified that examined the effects of tDCS on MUD outcomes (e.g., craving, cognition). After removing heterogeneous studies, meta-analyses were performed for tDCS vs. sham control studies in the craving domain. We found that tDCS reduced craving, indicated by medium to large effect sizes (Hedges' g: -0.64; SMD -0.58, 95% CI -0.85 to -0.30; I² = 10.71%, Q value: 8.96). Results showed that complementary treatment with tDCS can be useful. The DLPFC (F3, F4) was the most commonly targeted brain region for stimulation or inhibition. However, the number of sessions and their duration varied significantly across studies. Conclusions: This systematic review and meta-analysis found that tDCS can reduce momentary and cue-induced cravings. However, the studies varied in quality and sample size and used different scales for assessing cravings and cognitive functions, leading to inconsistencies. The review highlighted the importance of targeting the DLPFC due to its role in executive functions and self-control, with right-sided stimulation showing greater effectiveness. Emotional dysregulation in MUD, such as anxiety and depression, was also noted, with tDCS showing limited support for emotion regulation. The review identified the need for larger RCTs, standardized measurement tools, and detailed participant information to improve the understanding and effectiveness of tDCS in treating MUD.

Structural Learning in Autistic and Non-Autistic Children: A Replication and Extension.

The hippocampus is involved in many cognitive domains which are difficult for autistic individuals. Our previous study using a Structural Learning task that has been shown to depend on hippocampal functioning found that structural learning is diminished in autistic adults (Ring et al., 2017). The aim of the present study was to examine whether those results can be replicated in and extended to a sample of autistic and non-autistic children. We tested 43 autistic children and 38 non-autistic children with a subsample of 25 autistic and 28 non-autistic children who were well-matched on IQ. The children took part in a Simple Discrimination task which a simpler form of compound learning, and a Structural Learning task. We expected both groups to perform similarly in Simple Discrimination but reduced performance by the autism group on the Structural Learning task, which is what we found in both the well-matched and the non-matched sample. However, contrary to our prediction and the findings from autistic adults in our previous study, autistic children demonstrated a capacity for Structural Learning and showed an overall better performance in the tasks than was seen in earlier studies. We discuss developmental differences in autism as well as the role of executive functions that may have contributed to better than predicted task performance in this study.

Relationships between gross motor skills, psychological resilience, executive function, and emotional regulation among Chinese rural preschoolers: A moderated mediation model

BackgroundEmotional regulation is a critical component of emotional intelligence, particularly during the preschool stage, a key period for children's development. Previous studies have demonstrated that executive function mediates the effect of gross motor skills on emotional understanding. However, studies specifically focusing on children from rural areas and investigating the role of psychological resilience are limited. The present study fills this knowledge gap by examining the effect of gross motor skills on emotional regulation and the roles of executive function and psychological resilience among Chinese rural preschool children. MethodsThis study included 430 children (aged 61.01 ± 6.98 months, 48.8 % boys) and their teachers from three rural preschools in China. Children's gross motor skills, including locomotor and object control skills, were assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development-3. Executive function was measured using the Head-Toes-Knee-Shoulder task, and emotional regulation was assessed using the Emotional Regulation Checklist. Furthermore, psychological resilience was examined using the Devereux Early Childhood Assessment. Demographic information was collected, and the cross-sectional relationships between gross motor skills and emotional regulation were investigated through mediation and moderation analyses. ResultsGross motor skills, executive function, and psychological resilience were associated with emotional regulation (p < 0.05), after controlling for sex, age, and only-child status. Executive function was found to mediate the relationship between gross motor skills and emotional regulation, with a mediation effect of 0.045. Psychological resilience moderated the relationship between executive function and emotional regulation (β = 0.078, p < 0.05). Simple slope analysis, based on categorizing psychological resilience into high, medium, and low groups, revealed that preschoolers with a higher level of psychological resilience exhibited a significantly stronger predictive effect of executive function on emotional regulation (β = 0.202, p < 0.01). ConclusionsGross motor skills significantly affect emotional regulation development in rural preschoolers, with executive function acting as a mediator in this relationship. Psychological resilience was found to moderate the effect of executive function on emotional regulation. The findings suggest that enhancing gross motor skills through physical activities can benefit children by promoting the development of executive function, which is crucial for emotional regulation. On the basis of our findings, we recommend focusing on cost-effective physical activity interventions for motor skills development among rural children while also addressing the development of executive function and psychological resilience. Future efforts should include workshops to improve physical literacy of parents and teachers regarding children's gross motor skills promotion.

Association between Inhibitory-Excitatory Balance and Brain Activity Response during Cognitive Flexibility in Young and Older Individuals.

Cognitive flexibility represents the capacity to switch among different mental schemes, providing an adaptive advantage to a changing environment. The neural underpinnings of this executive function have been deeply studied in humans through fMRI, showing that the left inferior frontal cortex (IFC) and the left inferior parietal lobe (IPL) are crucial. Here, we investigated the inhibitory-excitatory balance in these regions by means of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA+) and glutamate + glutamine (Glx), measured with magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS), during a cognitive flexibility task and its relationship with performance level and the local task-induced blood-oxygen level dependent (BOLD) response in 40 young (18-35 y.o.; 26 female) and 40 older (18-35 y.o.; 21 female) human adults. As the IFC and the IPL are richly connected regions, we also examined whole-brain effects associated with their local metabolic activity. Results did not show absolute metabolic modulations associated with flexibility performance, but performance level was related to the direction of metabolic modulation in the IPL with opposite patterns in young and older individuals. The individual inhibitory-excitatory balance modulation showed an inverse relationship with the local BOLD response in the IPL. Finally, the modulation of inhibitory-excitatory balance in IPL was related to whole-brain effects only in older individuals. These findings show disparities in the metabolic mechanisms underlying cognitive flexibility in young and older adults and their association with performance level and BOLD response. Such metabolic differences are likely to play a role in executive functioning during aging and specifically in cognitive flexibility.Significance Statement Cognitive flexibility provides an advantage in adapting to changing environments. We investigated the inhibitory-excitatory balance (GABA+/Glx) modulation in the frontal and parietal cortices during cognitive flexibility in young and older individuals through MRS. An increase in the excitatory tone during cognitive performance related to a better execution in younger adults. Interestingly, it was an increase in the inhibitory tone that was associated to a better performance in older adults. Furthermore, we revealed that an increased inhibitory tone in older adults related to a decreased oxygen consumption in remote brain areas (BOLD-fMRI). This may suggest that GABA modulation facilitates the segregation of neural networks, maximizing brain efficiency and cognitive performance. These findings underscore age-related disparities in the neurometabolic mechanisms underlying cognitive flexibility.

The role of executive functions in long-term memory: case report

The role of executive functions in long-term memory has been studied. We describe a single-case study, consisting of a 45-year-old male patient, hospitalized for right frontal stroke. After the stroke, the patient had memory alterations in everyday activities. However, performance in short-term memory tests was not significantly altered. Long-term memory assessments included pre- and post-stroke episodic, semantic, and procedural memories. Specific skills involved in the acquisition of new learning (auditory-verbal and visual reproduction) were also evaluated, as well as executive functions. The results evidence that short-term memory was not affected. Regarding long-term memory, significant differences were observed between pre- and post-stroke knowledge, the former being better preserved, which reveals anterograde amnesia. Pre-stroke long-term memory was also affected, but only with respect to episodic knowledge, with semantic and procedural memories preserved (episodic retrograde amnesia). Executive functions were altered as well, which could have been a factor affecting the acquisition and consolidation of new learning, despite the fact that short-term memory was not significantly altered. Therefore, executive functions might be a determinant factor in the acquisition of new learning, regardless of short-term memory processes, at least partially. According to the results of the present study, alterations in these functions might lead to anterograde amnesia. This entails the need to evaluate executive functions as an intrinsic part of memory evaluation.

Self-Regulation in Eating Behaviors: The Role of Executive Function in Response to Food Stimuli.

Human nutrition is characterized by both automatic and self-regulated processes. One of the dimensions that may be employed in monitoring eating behaviors is the cognitive control played by the executive functions (EFs). The role of EFs in affecting eating behaviors has been assessed in empirical studies, but further analyses are needed in a current society characterized by a food-abundant environment. Accordingly, this study attempted to evaluate the association between weight status and executive functions in response to food-related stimuli. One hundred and forty-four young adults took part in the study (25.7% in overweight condition). The participants completed a set of computerized cognitive tasks to assess cognitive and motor inhibition and working memory in two different conditions: (i) classic versions of the tasks and (ii) modified versions with food cues. The results indicate that food stimuli may influence executive performance and that there is an association between food cue-related executive functioning, particularly in the domain of motor inhibition, and working memory. These results suggest that self-regulation in nutrition may involve executive control. Although further studies are needed, this work suggests the importance of a multidimensional perspective in the analysis of eating behaviors and the relevance of EFs in monitoring our approach to food stimuli in an environmental context.

Executive function and drivers’ ability to self-regulate behaviour when engaging with devices

Distracted driving is a leading cause of road trauma. While there is an understanding of some psychological mechanisms underlying distracted driving, there is limited knowledge on the role of executive function in the willingness to engage in non-driving tasks and even less is known about its potential role in drivers’ self-regulatory behaviour when distracted. This study investigated the relationship between executive function and driver engagement with technology. It specifically focussed on whether difficulties in everyday executive functioning impacts drivers’ ability to self-regulate behaviour when engaging with devices at the planning, decision and control levels. Twenty-five licenced drivers aged 20 to 65 years were recruited from the general driving public. Participants first completed the Behaviour Rating Inventory of Executive Function – Adult Version (BRIEF-A) and then filled in a series of trip diaries soon after driving over a four-week period. The diaries detailed their interactions with a range of on-board and portable devices during each trip. Generalised Estimated Equations were used to examine associations between executive function and drivers’ behavioural regulation when interacting with devices. Results revealed that difficulties with the behavioural regulation and metacognition aspects of executive function were associated with higher engagement with devices while driving. Executive function also had important links to drivers’ self-regulatory behaviours, particularly at the planning and decision levels. The relationship between executive function and self-regulation at the control level was less clear. These findings enhance our understanding of the mechanisms underlying distracted driving behaviour and suggest possible interventions to reduce engagement with devices and facilitate and enhance positive self-regulatory behaviours.

Automatic metaphor processing in developmental dyslexia

IntroductionPrevious research found metaphor impairments with dyslexia; however, it is unclear if difficulties are due to initial activation of the metaphorical meaning or to subsequent discourse integration processes. The study examines the presence of early automatic processing of metaphors in adults with developmental dyslexia, considering the role of executive functions and metaphor familiarity. MethodsUsing a sentence recall task and a semantic judgment task from the Metaphor Interference Effect (MIE) paradigm, we evaluated two early stages of metaphor comprehension, namely the generation of the figurative meaning and the suppression of the literal meaning. High and low familiar metaphors, and their scrambled counterparts, were aurally presented to participants, who were asked to judge whether sentences were literally true or literally false. Afterwards, they were provided ten minutes to recall the sentences they heard to verify the depth of processing for each type of stimulus. A total of 26 participants with dyslexia were included in the experimental group, and 31 in the control group. ResultsIndividuals with dyslexia showed a MIE and an accuracy rate that are similar to participants without dyslexia. Inhibition correlated with the MIE size only for high familiar metaphors, and working memory seemed to play no role in the process. In the recall task, both groups demonstrated a better encoding of the metaphorical sentences compared to scrambled metaphors, but participants with dyslexia recalled less metaphors than did the control group, showing that metaphors are no exception to the limitations in sentence retrieval typically found in dyslexia. ConclusionsOur findings suggest that individuals with dyslexia are comparable to participants without dyslexia in their ability to automatically compute metaphorical meanings. Thus, difficulties in metaphor comprehension in people with dyslexia that have been detected in previous studies might depend on meaning construction in context rather than online semantic processing.

The role of executive function in cognitive reappraisal: A meta-analytic review.

Cognitive reappraisal refers to the reinterpretation of a situation to alter its emotional meaning. Theoretically, executive functions (EFs), such as inhibition, updating, and shifting, are core elements of reappraisal processes. However, empirical studies have yielded inconsistent evidence as to whether and to what extent EFs are associated with reappraisal. To address this issue, we conducted a meta-analysis of the literature in which 179 effect sizes from 59 independent samples (N = 4,703) were included. Using random-effects metaregression with robust-variance estimates and small-sample corrections, we also examined whether variation in effect sizes could be accounted for by potential moderators, such as the way reappraisal was assessed (i.e., questionnaires vs. task-based measures) and the type of stimuli used in EF tasks (i.e., affective vs. nonaffective). Overall, results indicate relatively small to typical associations between reappraisal and all three EFs (rs = .13-.19). While the way reappraisal was measured did not moderate any of the relations between EF and reappraisal, we found stronger relations between inhibition and reappraisal when EF was assessed using tasks that involved affective, relative to nonaffective, stimuli. Our meta-analytic findings offer modest support for the idea that EFs are cognitive constituents of reappraisal processes. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Conceptualizing avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder via an executive functioning lens.

Avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID) is a heterogeneous disorder wherein restrictive eating is primarily attributed to non-shape/weight-based reasons (e.g., sensory sensitivity) that empirical research continues to explore. Mounting evidence suggests that ARFID often presents alongside neurodevelopmental diagnoses (NDs) or divergent neurodevelopment broadly. Executive functioning (EF) differences often characterize divergent neurodevelopmental trajectories. Additionally, restrictive eating in anorexia nervosa has been conceptualized as related to EF factors (e.g., set shifting). Given the neurodevelopmental phenotype that may be associated with ARFID and the role of EF in anorexia nervosa, this paper proposes EF as a potentially important, yet understudied factor in ARFID pathology. We posit that various observed ARFID behavioral/cognitive tendencies can be conceptualized in relation to EF differences. We contextualize commonly observed ARFID presentations within "core" EF components (i.e., cognitive flexibility, working memory, inhibitory control), leading to hypotheses about EF in ARFID. Finally, we offer additional considerations/directions for future research on EF in ARFID. Increased research on EF in ARFID is needed to consider this potential common factor in the etiology and maintenance of this heterogeneous disorder. We aim to promote further consideration of EF in ARFID etiology, maintenance, and treatment-outcome research. PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE: This article proposes that aspects of executive functioning (EF) may play a role in the onset and maintenance of avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID), although this notion is largely untested by existing research. Further research on the role of EF in ARFID may assist with refining models and treatments for this heterogeneous disorder.

Disfluency across the lifespan: an individual differences investigation

ABSTRACT This study had two research objectives. The first was to examine age-related differences in the fluency of speech outputs, as prior research contains conflicting findings concerning whether older adults produce more disfluency than younger adults. The second was to examine cognitive individual differences, and their relationship with the production of disfluency. One hundred and fifty-four adults completed a story re-telling task, and a battery of cognitive measures. Results showed that younger adults produced more um’s and fewer repetitions. For individual differences, results showed that inhibition and set shifting were related to the production of repetitions, and inhibition and working memory were related to uh production. Our results provide clarification about mixed findings with respect age and disfluency production. The individual differences provide clarification on theoretical arguments for disfluent speech in aging (e.g. Inhibition Deficit Hypothesis), and also sheds light on the role of executive functions in models of language production.

Role of executive functions in the relations of state- and trait-math anxiety with math performance.

The detrimental effect of math anxiety on math performance is thought to be mediated by executive functions. Previous studies have primarily focused on trait-math anxiety rather than state-math anxiety and have typically examined a single executive function rather than comprehensively evaluating all of them. Here, we used a structural equation modeling approach to concurrently determine the potential mediating roles of different executive functions (i.e., inhibition, switching, and updating) in the relationships between both state- and trait-math anxiety and math performance. A battery of computer-based tasks and questionnaires were administered to 205 university students. Two relevant results emerged. First, confirmatory factor analysis suggests that math anxiety encompassed both trait and state dimensions and, although they share substantial variance, trait-math anxiety predicted math performance over and above state-math anxiety. Second, working memory updating was the only executive function that mediated the relationship between math anxiety and math performance; neither inhibition nor switching played mediating roles. This calls into question whether some general proposals about the relationship between anxiety and executive functions can be extended specifically to math anxiety. We also raise the possibility that working memory updating or general cognitive difficulties might precede individual differences in math anxiety.

The role of executive functions in 9‐ to 12‐year‐old children's sentence processing: An eye‐movement study

BackgroundExecutive function (EF) plays a crucial role in children's reading. However, previous studies were based on offline products of reading comprehension. Online research is needed to reveal the core mechanisms underlying children's reading processing. By measuring children's working memory (WM) and cognitive flexibility (CF), we investigated whether individual differences in EF could modulate sentence processing and, if so, how they exert their roles.MethodsThe present study manipulated semantic congruency and the association between crucial words in a sentence. We recruited 89 Chinese children aged 9–12 years and monitored their eye movement.ResultsThe study revealed distinct associations between reader‐ and text‐related characteristics, as evidenced by eye‐movement patterns during reading. A significant incongruency effect was observed in reading, underscoring the children's capacity to discern incongruent information. Children's WM and CF were found to modulate this process. Specifically, high‐WM children showed more effective integration of incongruent information when the textual context was closely related during the later‐stage processing. In contrast, low‐WM children faced more challenges with incongruent words. Additionally, CF was influential during the early processing period. High‐CF children exhibited longer early‐stage reading times for incongruent words in associated contexts.ConclusionsIndividual differences in EF can modulate children's online sentence processing. However, different EF components may play different roles.