Role Of Lactate Research Articles

Proteomic Analysis of Lysosomal Membrane Proteins in Bovine Mammary Epithelial Cells Illuminates Potential Novel Lysosome Functions in Lactation.

Lactation of bovine mammary epithelial cells (BMEC) is a complex biological process that involves in various organelles. Studies have shown that lysosome and lysosomal membrane proteins (LMP) plays an important role in lactation of BMEC. But the LMP of BMEC remains poorly understood. To obtain a global view of the LMP of BMEC and the affect of lysosome on lactation, the LMP of BMEC was identified using sequential windowed acquisition of all theoretical mass spectra (LC-SWATH/MS). 1214 LMP were identified and 559 were reported to be localized on lysosomal membrane for the first time in BMEC. Gene ontology annotation of these identified proteins showed that both previously reported casein synthesis-related LMP, such as LAMTOR1, 2, 3, and rRagC, and newly identified casein and milk fat synthesis-related LMP, such as EIF4E and ACAA1, were found. KEGG pathway analysis of these identified proteins showed that some pathways involved in lactation, such as PI3K-Akt, mTOR, insulin, PPAR, and JAK-STAT pathway, were found. The lysosomal location of five proteins (PRKCA, EIF4E, ACAA1, HRAS, and THBS1) was analyzed by laser confocal microscopy, and all five were associated with the lysosomal membrane. These findings help to elucidate lysosome functions in the regulation of lactation. The results implicate lysosomes as important organelles in regulation of lactation of BMEC that have been previously undervalued.

MicroRNA-221 regulates proliferation of bovine mammary gland epithelial cells by targeting the STAT5a and IRS1 genes

MicroRNAs (miRNA) play an essential role in mammary gland development and lactation. Previous studies in cattle have shown that miR-221 is highly expressed in peak compared with early lactation. However, the functions of miR-221 in bovine mammary gland epithelial cells and the mechanisms by which this miRNA affects cell proliferation and milk synthesis remain unclear. We hypothesized that miR-221 targets and modulates the expression of specific genes in the Janus kinase-signal transducer and activator of transcription (JAK-STAT) and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-proteinkinase B/mammalian target of rapamycin (PI3K-Akt/mTOR) signaling pathways, which have crucial roles in lactation in cattle. Following transfection of miR-221 into cultured bovine mammary gland epithelial cells, inhibition of cell proliferation and reduced viability of these cells were observed using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay and flow cytometry analysis. To elucidate the molecular mechanisms of the effects of miR-221 on cell proliferation, we selected potential candidate genes that can be targeted by miR-221 using bioinformatics prediction tools. The dual luciferase assay revealed that STAT5a, STAT3, and IRS1 interact with miR-221 by its direct binding to the 3'-untranslated regions (UTR) of these genes. Subsequent analysis showed that transfection of a miR-221 mimic resulted in significantly decreased expression of STAT5a and IRS1 at both the RNA and protein levels using quantitative real-time PCR and Western blot analyses. Furthermore, expression levels of the downstream genes SOCS3, AKT3, and mTOR that are regulated by STAT5a and IRS1 in the JAK-STAT and PI3K-Akt/mTOR signaling pathways, were also altered after miR-221 transfection. This is the first study to reveal the mechanisms by which miR-221 inhibits mammary gland epithelial cell proliferation by targeting STAT5a and IRS1, key genes in the PI3K-Akt/mTOR and JAK-STAT signaling pathways.

Carbon-Fiber Microbiosensor for Monitoring Rapid Lactate Fluctuations in Brain Tissue Using Fast-Scan Cyclic Voltammetry.

Recent studies have described a role for lactate in brain energy metabolism and energy formation, challenging the conventional view that glucose is the principle energy source for brain function. To date, lactate dynamics in the brain are largely unknown, limiting insight into function. We addressed this by developing and characterizing a lactate oxidase-modified carbon-fiber microelectrode coupled with fast-scan cyclic voltammetry. This new tool boasts a sensitivity for lactate of 22 ± 1 nA·mM-1 and LOD of 7.0 ± 0.7 μM. The approach has enabled detection of rapid lactate fluctuations with unprecedented spatiotemporal resolution as well as excellent stability, selectivity, and sensitivity. The technology was characterized both in vitro and in vivo at discrete recording sites in rat striatum. We provide evidence that striatal lactate availability increases biphasically in response to electrical stimulation of the dopaminergic midbrain in the anesthetized rat. This new tool for real-time detection of lactate dynamics promises to improve understanding of how lactate availability underscores neuronal function and dysfunction.

Roles of Lactate and Corticosterone on Testosterone Biosynthesis in Leydig Cells

Roles of Lactate and Corticosterone on Testosterone Biosynthesis in Leydig Cells

Prolactin as a candidate sebotrop(h)ic hormone?

Recognised for its key role in lactation, it is less well appreciated that the neurohormone prolactin (PRL) is actually one of the most pleiotropic hormones known. Not only does PRL exert both tropic and trophic effects in a wide range of tissues, but it is also expressed in human skin and hair follicles and regulates multiple complex cutaneous functions, including keratin expression and hair growth. Despite several clinical indications that PRL may also play a role in sebaceous gland (SG) biology, the effects of PRL on SG function have received little attention. In this Viewpoint essay, we argue that PRL may be a sebotrop(h)ic hormone and could represent a novel therapeutic target in human dermatoses affecting the SG. We provide preliminary evidence in support of this hypothesis (based on findings in human skin organ culture) and chart the major open questions in SG biology and pathology from a PRL research perspective. We close by delineating how these questions can be experimentally addressed so as to identify new therapeutic strategies that are either sebogenic or sebostatic, for example in the management of acne and cutaneous ageing.

Lactate in cardiogenic shock - current understanding and clinical implications.

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is an essential substrate metabolite in human beings. Mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation provides > 95% of ATP with the remainder derived from glycolysis or tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA). In normal hearts, acetyl-CoA is synthesized from the β-oxidation of free fatty acids (FFA) and the oxidation of pyruvate. Pyruvate is synthesized from glycolysis and can be submitted either for decarboxylation to acetyl-CoA or for dehydrogenation to lactate. Moreover, pyruvate, as well as lactate, plays a key role in aerobic glucose metabolism which is highly dependent on ubiquitous regulatory mechanisms. Many recent advances in molecular biology, genetics, and physiology have revealed new insights into the metabolic flux of lactate. The initial perception characterized by increased lactate production and accumulation in peripheral tissues in anaerobic conditions has been recently contested. The paradigm of increased lactate concentration in the anaerobic setting is discussed according to contemporary reports. Nevertheless, the clinical role of lactate as a prognostic factor in cardiovascular diseases is undisturbed, especially in the field of innovative technology of left/bi ventricular-assist devices and biochips where it reassured its diagnostic and prognostic impact on the cardiovascular system.

Modulating the Oxytocin System During the Perinatal Period: A New Strategy for Neuroprotection of the Immature Brain?

Oxytocin is a neurohypophysal hormone known for its activity during labor and its role in lactation. However, the function of oxytocin (OTX) goes far beyond the peripheral regulation of reproduction, and the central effects of OTX have been extensively investigated, since it has been recognized to influence the learning and memory processes. OTX has also prominent effects on social behavior, anxiety, and autism. Interaction between glucocorticoids, OTX, and maternal behavior may have long-term effects on the developmental program of the developing brain subjected to adverse events during pre and perinatal periods. OTX treatment in humans improves many aspects of social cognition and behavior. Its effects on the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis and inflammation appear to be of interest in neonates because these properties may confer benefits when the perinatal brain has been subjected to injury. Indeed, early life inflammation and abnormal adrenal response to stress have been associated with an abnormal white matter development. Recent investigations demonstrated that OTX is involved in the modulation of microglial reactivity in the developing brain. This review recapitulates state-of-the art data supporting the hypothesis that the OTX system could be considered as an innovative candidate for neuroprotection, especially in the immature brain.

Adrenergic hormones induce extrapituitary prolactin gene expression in leukocytes-potential implications in obesity

The pituitary hormone prolactin (PRL), originally described for its role in lactation, has been implemented in over 300 functions and is produced by multiple cell types outside of the pituitary. Monocyte/macrophages in particular show robust expression of extra-pituitary prolactin (ePRL). While ePRL protein is identical to pituitary PRL and translated from the same gene, tissues outside the pituitary engage an alternative promoter to regulate expression. Many of the factors regulating this expression, however, remain unknown. Here we show that the adrenergic hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine induce PRL expression in the human monocytic cell line THP-1 at physiological concentrations. Furthermore, our experiments show the polarization state of differentiated macrophages can influence their response in vitro, with inflammatory M1 macrophages—common in obese adipose—showing the highest levels of PRL expression compared to other macrophage types. Adrenergic hormones have a clearly defined role in adipocyte lipid metabolism, stimulating lipolysis through hormone sensitive lipase (HSL) induction. Meanwhile, PRL has been shown to stimulate lipogenesis. This highlights ePRL production as a possible factor in obesity. The overall balance of these two signals could play a critical role in determining overall lipid turnover/accumulation in adipose depots where large numbers of adipose tissue macrophages (ATMs) reside.

Estimation of an area between the baseline and the effect curve parameter for lactate levels in the hippocampi of neonatal rats during anesthesia

Naturally occurring caspase-3-dependent cell death is a widespread event in the immature nervous system. Prolonged exposure to anesthetics promotes activation of caspase-3 in the developing hippocampus. In addition, anesthetics can upregulate the levels of metabolite lactate in the adult brain. The long-lasting increase in lactate levels may affect viability of brain cells. However, it remains unknown if anesthetic-induced activation of caspase-3 is accompanied by an increase in lactate levels in the immature brain.We investigated expression of apoptotic proteins by immunoblot and estimated an area between the baseline and the effect curve (ABEC) parameter for lactate levels by high-resolution magnetic resonance spectroscopy in the hippocampi of 2-day-old Wistar rats after treatment with anesthetic urethane. Both 1.5 and 2.5 g/kg of urethane resulted in a dose-dependent increase in the levels of active caspase-3 in the hippocampi in 4 h after injection. This anesthetic-induced increase in the levels of active caspase-3 was preceded by a prolonged dose-dependent rise in lactate levels. The dose-dependent increase in lactate levels was not associated with the urethane-induced changes in respiratory rate in the treated rat pups.Present results evidence that the prolonged dose-dependent elevation in lactate levels in the developing brain can be induced even by urethane, which was suggested to be suitable for various physiopharmacological studies previously. The observed sequence of events after treatment with urethane suggests the possible role of lactate as a neurodamaging agent in the immature brain in case of the sustaining rise in the levels of this metabolite during prolonged anesthesia.

125 Lactate as a Mortality Predictor in Emergency Department Patients With Gastrointestinal Hemorrhage

The prognostic value of emergency department lactate levels has been well studied in conditions such as sepsis and trauma; however, limited data exists for its use in gastrointestinal hemorrhage (GIH). Additionally, the presence of hypotension has also been cited as predictive of mortality in GIH but the role of lactate is not defined. The primary objective of this study was to compare mortality in emergency department GIH patients using lactate as the prognostic indicator. This was a retrospective cohort study in an urban, tertiary care teaching hospital. A total of 269 patients with GIH had lactate levels obtained between October 1st, 2008 and May 31st, 2013. Inclusion criteria were all individuals presenting in the ED who were ≥18 years of age with the clinical impression of a GIH who had a lactate level obtained at the discretion of the treating physician. The main outcome measure was in-hospital mortality with a secondary outcome comparing the predictive value of lactate in patients with hypotension (SBP < 90) and without hypotension (SBP ≥ 90). Of the 269 patients in this analysis, 20 (7.4%) expired. The mean lactate of survivors was 2.5 mmol/L (95% CI 2.3-2.7) and the mean lactate of expired patients was 5.6 mmol/L (95% CI 3.6-7.6). 24 (8.9%) patients were hypotensive with 29.2% in-hospital mortality. In the subset of 245 normotensive patients, mortality associated with a lactate level < 2.5 mmol/L was 1.9%, a lactate 2.5-3.9 mmol/L was 4.9%, and a lactate ≥ 4 mmol/L was 18.6% (p<0.0001). Lactate is predictive of mortality in emergency department patients with GIH. This study highlights that elevated lactate levels were predictive of mortality when hypotension was absent. This indicates that lactate may be a useful predictor of mortality when used in conjunction with traditional variables.

Oxytocin effects on experimental skin wound healing.

Objective:Oxytocin (OXY) has significant effects on mammalian behavior. Next to its role in lactation and social interactions, it is described to support better wound healing as well. However, direct OXY effects on wound healing and the regeneration of the microvascular network are still not clarified. We therefore examined the effects of OXY and an OXY receptor antagonist [atosiban (ATO)] on skin wound healing, focusing on epithelialization and neovascularization.Methods:Skin wound healing has been assessed using intravital fluorescence microscopy in a model of full dermal thickness wounds in the dorsal skin fold chamber of hairless mice. Animals received repetitive low or high doses of OXY or ATO. Morphological and cellular characterization of skin tissue repair was performed by histology and in vitro cell assays.Results:The assessment of skin tissue repair using this therapy regimen showed that OXY and ATO had no major influence on epithelialization, neovascularization, wound cellularity, or inflammation. Moreover, OXY and ATO did neither stimulate nor deteriorate keratinocyte or fibroblast migration and proliferation.Conclusion:In summary, this study is the first to demonstrate that OXY application does not impair skin wound healing or cell behavior. However, until now, the used transmitter system seems not to be clarified in detail, and it might be proposed that it is associated with the stress response of the organism to various stimuli.

The brain behaves as a muscle?

It is known that lactate accumulates in the skeletal muscle during intense anaerobic exercise but is rapidly cleared from the muscles when they resume aerobic metabolism; however, at least some lactate reaches the blood stream. It has been observed that during maximal exercise, blood lactate increases with transport of the blood to the brain. This could be interpreted as a mechanism to protect against possible "central fatigue" in times of maximal activity during the course of which the lactate would preserve the functionality of the primary cortical motor and sensory areas, even at the expense of the efficiency of the other structures. In this way, the role of lactate, both at the muscular level and in the CNS, appears to shift from being responsible for fatigue to protector from fatigue, which represents a real transition similar to that of how the image of Mr. Hyde changes to that of Dr. Jekyll.

Rapamycin (mTORC1 inhibitor) reduces the production of lactate and 2-hydroxyglutarate oncometabolites in IDH1 mutant fibrosarcoma cells

BackgroundMultiple studies concluded that oncometabolites (e.g. D-2-hydroxyglutarate (2-HG) related to mutant isocitrate dehydrogenase 1/2 (IDH1/2) and lactate) have tumour promoting potential. Regulatory mechanisms implicated in the maintenance of oncometabolite production have great interest. mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin) orchestrates different pathways, influences cellular growth and metabolism. Considering hyperactivation of mTOR in several malignancies, the question has been addressed whether mTOR operates through controlling of oncometabolite accumulation in metabolic reprogramming.MethodsHT-1080 cells – carrying originally endogenous IDH1 mutation – were used in vitro and in vivo. Anti-tumour effects of rapamycin were studied using different assays. The main sources and productions of the oncometabolites (2-HG and lactate) were analysed by 13C-labeled substrates. Alterations at protein and metabolite levels were followed by Western blot, flow cytometry, immunohistochemistry and liquid chromatography mass spectrometry using rapamycin, PP242 and different glutaminase inhibitors, as well.ResultsRapamycin (mTORC1 inhibitor) inhibited proliferation, migration and altered the metabolic activity of IDH1 mutant HT-1080 cells. Rapamycin reduced the level of 2-HG sourced mainly from glutamine and glucose derived lactate which correlated to the decreased incorporation of 13C atoms from 13C-substrates. Additionally, decreased expressions of lactate dehydrogenase A and glutaminase were also observed both in vitro and in vivo.ConclusionsConsidering the role of lactate and 2-HG in regulatory network and in metabolic symbiosis it could be assumed that mTOR inhibitors have additional effects besides their anti-proliferative effects in tumours with glycolytic phenotype, especially in case of IDH1 mutation (e.g. acute myeloid leukemias, gliomas, chondrosarcomas). Based on our new results, we suggest targeting mTOR activity depending on the metabolic and besides molecular genetic phenotype of tumours to increase the success of therapies.

Restraint stress increases prolactin-mediated phosphorylation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 5 in the hypothalamus and adrenal cortex in the male mouse.

Prolactin is a pleiotropic peptide hormone produced by the lactotrophs in the anterior pituitary. Its rate of secretion is primarily regulated by a negative-feedback mechanism where prolactin stimulates the activity of the tuberoinfundibular dopaminergic (TIDA) neurones, increasing their release of dopamine, which accesses the pituitary via the median eminence to suppress further prolactin secretion. In addition to its well established role in lactation, circulating prolactin is secreted in response to stress, although the mechanism by which this is achieved or its cellular targets remains unknown. In the present study, we show that 15minutes of restraint stress causes an approximately seven-fold increase in circulating prolactin concentration in male mice. Monitoring prolactin receptor activation, using immunohistochemistry to determine the level and distribution of tyrosine phosphorylated signal transducer and activator of transcription 5 (pSTAT5), we show that this stress-induced increase in prolactin interacts with both central and peripheral targets. Restraint stress for 15minutes significantly increased pSTAT5 staining in the arcuate nucleus, median eminence and the zona fasciculata of the adrenal cortex. In each case, this response was prevented by pretreating the animals with bromocriptine to block prolactin secretion from the pituitary. Interestingly, in contrast to many cells in the arcuate nucleus, stress reduced pSTAT5 staining of the TIDA neurones (identified by dual-labelling for tyrosine hydroxylase). This suggests that there is reduced prolactin signalling in these cells and thus potentially a decline in their inhibitory influence on prolactin secretion. These results provide evidence that prolactin secreted in response to acute stress is sufficient to activate prolactin receptors in selected target tissues known to be involved in the physiological adaptation to stress.

Lactate Shuttles in Neuroenergetics-Homeostasis, Allostasis and Beyond.

Understanding brain energy metabolism—neuroenergetics—is becoming increasingly important as it can be identified repeatedly as the source of neurological perturbations. Within the scientific community we are seeing a shift in paradigms from the traditional neurocentric view to that of a more dynamic, integrated one where astrocytes are no longer considered as being just supportive, and activated microglia have a profound influence. Lactate is emerging as the “good guy,” contrasting its classical “bad guy” position in the now superseded medical literature. This review begins with the evolution of the concept of “lactate shuttles”; goes on to the recent shift in ideas regarding normal neuroenergetics (homeostasis)—specifically, the astrocyte–neuron lactate shuttle; and progresses to covering the metabolic implications whereby homeostasis is lost—a state of allostasis, and the function of microglia. The role of lactate, as a substrate and shuttle, is reviewed in light of allostatic stress, and beyond—in an acute state of allostatic stress in terms of physical brain trauma, and reflected upon with respect to persistent stress as allostatic overload—neurodegenerative diseases. Finally, the recently proposed astrocyte–microglia lactate shuttle is discussed in terms of chronic neuroinflammatory infectious diseases, using tuberculous meningitis as an example. The novelty extended by this review is that the directionality of lactate, as shuttles in the brain, in neuropathophysiological states is emerging as crucial in neuroenergetics.

The role of lactate in intermolecular regulation of protein structures interaction

The role of lactate in intermolecular regulation of protein structures interaction

Selective Detection of Oxytocin on Diamond Electrodes in Preparation for Making In Vivo Measurements

<Introduction> It has recently been revealed that oxytocin (OT), a peptide hormone known for its role in lactation and parturition, works as a neurotransmitter as well. Due to a series of findings of positive effects on social behaviors such as trust in human, oxytocin has been of keen interest to neuroscientists. What is required now for further understanding of oxytocin science is a real-time measurement of oxytocin in vivo. On the other hand, in the region where oxytocin is secreted in the hypothalamus, another peptide, vasopressin (VP), is also secreted. Vasopressin is also a nonapeptide with a quite similar structure to oxytocin. Therefore, selective measurement of oxytocin and vasopressin is inevitable. Electrochemical detection allows a real-time measurement in millisecond order with high sensitivity. Compared to conventional electrodes, boron-doped diamond (BDD) electrode has a variety of outstanding properties such as wide potential window and low background current, which have led to a number of reports about sensitive measurement of substances which cannot be detected by other electrodes. Using BDD microelectrodes, in vivomeasurement of biomolecules have been achieved and applied to medical and physiological studies. In addition, surface termination of BDD can be changed from original state (hydrogen termination) to oxygen termination by some oxidation treatment, which enables selective measurement. In the present study, electrochemical detection of oxytocin was investigated using BDD electrodes. Two types of BDD, as-deposited (AD-BDD) and anodically-oxidized (AO-BDD), were used in order to achieve selective measurement. <Experiments> BDD electrodes were prepared by growing polycrystalline BDD thin films on silicon substrates or needle tungsten wires using microwave plasma-assisted chemical vapor deposition (MPCVD) system. Electrochemical measurements were conducted in a three-electrode system with BDD, platinum, and Ag/AgCl (KCl saturated) electrode as a working electrode, counter electrode, and reference electrode, respectively. Phosphate buffer saline (PBS) and Tris buffer were used as buffer solution after adjusted to pH 7.4. Surface transformation of BDD electrodes to oxygen termination was conducted on AD-BDD by means of anodic oxidation of 3.0 V application for 20 minutes in PBS. <Results and discussion>The electrochemical behavior of oxytocin was studied using AD-BDD. Cyclic voltammetry (CV) was performed for 0.1 mM oxytocin in 0.1 M PBS with a scan rate of 100 mV/s. Oxidation peak was observed at 0.7 V (vs. Ag/AgCl). Among the 9 amino acids constructing oxytocin, only tyrosine (Tyr) has been reported to be electrochemically oxidized. Tyrosine also gave oxidation signal at 0.7 V and the shape of voltammogram was quite similar to that of oxytocin. Consequently, it was deduced that oxidation of oxytocin is occurred at tyrosine moiety. When compared to other electrodes, BDD showed 4 times higher signal to background ratio than glassy carbon electrode. No signal was observed in the case of platinum electrode. These results showed that sensitive measurement of oxytocin is possible by using BDD electrode. Since vasopressin also contains tyrosine in its structure, it should show the oxidation signal. CV of vasopressin was compared to that of oxytocin. Exactly the same voltammograms were observed. On the other hand, AO-BDD, which has oxygen-terminated surface, showed apparent difference in voltammograms (Figure). Although the peak potential of vasopressin was maintained at the same position as AD-BDD, oxytocin showed a broad signal shifted to more positive potential region. On-set potential of tyrosine was still higher than that of oxytocin. One possible explanation to the results is the electrostatic interaction between the electrode surface and the molecules. The surface state of AO-BDD rich in C-O functional groups can be expected to have electrostatically negative state. On the other hand, tyrosine is negatively charged, oxytocin is almost neutral, and vasopressin is positively charged in the condition of pH 7.4. These facts and the results of CV well explain the mechanism of electrostatic interaction. Aiming at in vivo and selective measurement, chronoamperometry combined with flow injection analysis (FIA) by BDD microelectrodes was conducted. AD-BDD microelectrode applied at 1.0 V gave high linearity (R2 = 0.994) of the current peaks over the oxytocin concentration range from 0.1 to 10.0 μM with a detection limit of 50 nM (S/N =3). On the other hand, using AO-BDD microelectrode, selective measurement of oxytocin and vasopressin was achieved by the use of applied potential of 0.54 V, which gave the signals of only vasopressin. Consequently, the concentration of oxytocin can be obtained by subtracting the concentration of vasopressin measured on AO-BDD from that of oxytocin + vasopressin measured on AD-BDD. Figure 1

Genome-wide association study of prolactin levels in blood plasma and cerebrospinal fluid.

BackgroundProlactin is a polypeptide hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland that plays an essential role in lactation, tissue growth, and suppressing apoptosis to increase cell survival. Prolactin serves as a key player in many life-critical processes, including immune system and reproduction. Prolactin is also found in multiple fluids throughout the body, including plasma and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).MethodsIn this study, we measured prolactin levels in both plasma and CSF, and performed a genome-wide association study. We then performed meta-analyses using METAL with a significance threshold of p < 5 × 10−8 and removed SNPs where the direction of the effect was different between the two datasets.ResultsWe identified 12 SNPs associated with increased prolactin levels in both biological fluids.ConclusionsOur efforts will help researchers understand how prolactin is regulated in both CSF and plasma, which could be beneficial in research for the immune system and reproduction.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-016-2785-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

A Role for Lactate in the Consolidation of Drug-Related Associative Memories

Reference EPFL-ARTICLE-219624doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2016.04.010View record in Web of Science Record created on 2016-07-19, modified on 2017-05-12

Commentary: Oxygen regulation of breathing through an olfactory receptor activated by lactate.

Commentary: Oxygen regulation of breathing through an olfactory receptor activated by lactate.