Rod Extrusion Research Articles

Increasing the Lightweight Potential of Composite Cold Forging by Utilizing Magnesium and Granular Cores

In this paper a process sequence, that uses forward rod extrusion with cold forged C15 steel cup billets to produce lightweight shafts, is presented. The steel cup billets feature either a lightweight magnesium alloy core or a granular medium core that is removed after forming to obtain hollow shafts without the need of complex tools and highly loaded mandrels. It is shown that composite shafts featuring magnesium cores can be produced for a wide range of extrusion strains. Due to high hydrostic pressures in forward rod extrusion, the forming limit of magnesium at room temperature can be expanded. The observed bond strength between core and sheath is below the shear yield strength of utilized magnesium AZ31 alloy. Hollow shafts are successfully produced with the presented process route by utilizing zirconium oxide beads or quartz sand as a lost core. As the law of constant volume in metal forming is violated by compressible granular media, a simulation approach using a modified Drucker-Prager yield surface to model these materials is validated to provide a tool for efficient process design. Granular cores and magnesium alloy cores offer new possibilities in production of lightweight shafts by means of composite cold forging. Both process variants allow for higher weight savings than composite shafts based on aluminum cores.

Development and characterization of advanced neutron multiplier materials

Neutron multiplier materials are essential for self-sufficient tritium production and are closing the fuel cycle of fusion reactors. Until now, a concept of pebble bed consisting of interchanging layers of beryllium and lithium ceramic pebbles was considered for the Helium-Cooled Pebble Bed (HCPB) tritium-breeding module of the first experimental fusion reactor ITER as well as for the next demonstration fusion reactor DEMO. However, this concept depends on the availability of large amounts of pure beryllium pebbles and is also limited by its material properties like for example the tritium accumulation under irradiation.The results of tritium retention and analytical microstructural studies of beryllium pebbles obtained within the framework of the HIDOBE irradiation campaign suggest that a significant fraction of generated tritium (up to 100% below 500°C) is trapped within helium bubbles. Being negligible in the ITER tritium-breeding module (TBM), the total accumulated tritium inventory imposes severe safety issues and exceeds acceptable limits for the DEMO blanket. Therefore, advanced neutron multiplier materials such as beryllides have to be well characterized for their applicability in the HCPB blanket of DEMO and beyond. The usage of an advanced material with lower volumetric swelling, lower tritium retention, increased irradiation and chemical resistance as well as with higher melting temperature allows to switch from the pebble bed concept to a solid hexagonal block-based one. For the fabrication of titanium beryllide samples both the semi-industrial fabrication route utilizing the hot extrusion of rods and the industrial approach using vacuum hot pressing of a Be-Ti powder mixture were explored. In this contribution, we discuss reasons for the transition from pure beryllium to beryllides, respective changes of the HCPB blanket design and a successful demonstration of the feasibility of a beryllide block fabrication by an industrial method.

Applicability of Solid Lubricant Coatings in Cold Rod Extrusion of Stainless Steels

Cold extrusion is an established technology for the production of dimensionally accurate components in large series. Due to the high material and energy efficiency, a resource-saving manufacturing of high-performance parts is possible. Forming at room temperature leads to an advantageous grain structure and work hardening of the material, resulting in components with favorable operating characteristics. Nevertheless, a challenge is the generation of residual stresses during forming, which are influencing the fatigue behavior. The modification of the tribological conditions is one method for influencing the parts’ residual stress state. However, the high strength and work hardening of the materials formed at room temperature leads to high tribological loads between billet and die. These challenges are intensified by the increasing use of stainless steels due to growing demands for corrosion resistant components. The aim followed within this paper is therefore to investigate the applicability of typical lubricant coatings in the forward rod extrusion of stainless steels. For this purpose, the ferritic stainless steel X6Cr17 (DIN 1.4016) and the ferritic-austenitic stainless steel X2CrNiMoN22-5-3 (DIN 1.4462) are extruded with an equivalent plastic strain of ε̅ ≈ 1. The research is performed with a molybdenum disulfide (MoS2), a soap and a polymer-based lubricant coating. For reproducing different contact conditions, the die geometry is varied with die opening angles of 60°, 90° and 120°. The suitability of the lubricants is evaluated using the integrity of the lubricant coating after forming. From the correlations between process forces, temperatures and surface integrity, recommendations for the application of the researched lubricants are derived.

Electrical resistance-based fatigue assessment and capability prediction of extrudates from recycled field-assisted sintered EN AW-6082 aluminium chips

The possibility to directly extrude semi-finished products using a solid-state-recycling process is a promising alternative to the remelting process, which is highly energy-intensive. Therefore, aluminium chips, normally considered as scrap, are used as the basis for the recycling. The recycling process consists of a cold compaction process, a field-assisted sintering (FAST) process to consolidate the chips, and finally a forward rod extrusion process. Compared to approaches which break the oxide layers by applying high shear stresses and deformations, necessary for an adequate welding of the chips, quasistatic and cyclic properties and capabilities are significantly increased. The defect structure of specimens, which was determined by means of computed tomography and which significantly influences the lifetime, could be correlated well with pre-test electrical resistance measurements. Finally, these findings were used to establish a lifetime calculation model based on unique electrical resistance measurements prior to mechanical testing.

Influence of Die Surface Topography and Lubrication on the Product Quality during Indirect Extrusion of Copper-Clad Aluminum Rods

Copper-clad aluminum rods are usually fabricated using hydrostatic extrusion, since during direct and indirect extrusion fracture of the copper sleeve is difficult to avoid. In this study, different die surface topographies and lubrication conditions were applied to improve the material flow during indirect extrusion of copper-clad aluminum rods. Thus, conic dies with different roughness (polished and sandblasted) and surfaces shapes (fine and coarse grooves) were tested. Additionally, the effects of a wax-graphite-based lubricant as well as a graphite-like carbon (GLC) coating of the die conic surfaces were investigated. The composite billets were made of aluminum EN AW-1080A cores and copper CW004A sleeves with an equivalent copper cross section of 0.24 of the total billet cross section. For all trials, an extrusion ratio of 14.8:1 and a conic die angle of 2α = 90° were chosen. Non-isothermal extrusion trials were carried out using a container at 330 °C and billet and tools at room temperature to reduce the flow stress ratio σCu/σAl. The extruded composite rods’ integrity, surface quality, interface integrity, and equivalent copper cross section were analyzed. In addition, a visual inspection of the sleeve-die contact surface was performed. The results showed that the GLC coating proved to be unsuitable due to a lack of lubrication, which causes accumulated sleeve fractures and longitudinal grooves on the extruded rods. The best results were achieved with the combination of the sandblasted die surface and the wax-graphite-based lubricant, observing a uniform material flow without sleeve fractures.

Numerical Investigations on Material Flow During Indirect Extrusion of Copper-Clad Aluminum Rods

In the extrusion of clad composites materials with different flow stresses are usually used. This causes an inhomogeneous material flow which can induce sleeve or core fracture. In the present study, the material flow during indirect extrusion of copper-clad aluminum rods was analyzed by means of experimental and numerical investigations throughout the process. In order to provide material models for the numerical analysis hot compression tests of the aluminum alloy EN AW-1080A and the copper alloy CW004A were carried out. The indirect extrusion was performed using a conical die with a semi die angle of 45 ° and an extrusion ratio of 14.8:1. The container was heated to 330 °C, while billet, die and ram were kept at room temperature. The extrusion trial was then modeled with the FEM based software DEFORM 2D. Cross sections were taken from the extruded rod and compared to the corresponding sections of the simulation with regard to the development of the equivalent copper cross section. As a result, the development of extrusion force and equivalent copper cross section could be clarified. The numerical investigations indicated a higher flow velocity for the aluminum core than for the copper sleeve at the bearing channel. Therefore, high tensile stresses and fractures of the copper sleeve were induced. Additionally, the validated numerical analysis made possible to determine the conditions for a successful co-extrusion of the analyzed copper-clad aluminum rod.

Performance-Related Characterization of Forming-Induced Initial Damage in 16MnCrS5 Steel under a Torsional Forward-Reverse Loading Path at LCF Regime.

Forming technology and in particular cold forward rod extrusion is one of the key manufacturing technologies with regard to the production of shafts. The selection of process parameters determines the global and local material properties. This particularly implies forming-induced initial damage in representation of pores. On this background, this study aims on describing the influence of these pores in the performance of the material 16MnCrS5 (DIN 1.7139, AISI/SAE 5115) under a torsional load path in the low cycle fatigue regime, which is highly relevant for shafts under operation conditions. For this purpose, the method of cyclic forward-reverse torsional testing was applied. Additionally, intermittent testing method and the characterization of the state of crack growth using selective electron microscopy analysis of the surface were combined. A first attempt was made to describe the influence of forming-induced initial damage on the fatigue performance and the crack growth mechanisms. The correlation of fatigue performance and initial damage was contiguous in the sense that the initial damage corresponds with a decrease of material performance. It was concluded that the focus of further investigations must be on small crack growth and the related material changes to identify the role of initial damage under cyclic loads.

Algorithm for calculating the technological parameters of the process of extrusion of rods from powder compositions based on iron

An algorithm is proposed for calculating the technological parameters of the process of extruding rods from iron-based powder compositions, which makes it possible to predict the density of the rods depending on the initial porosity of the briquette, the drawing ratio, the taper angle of the matrix, and determining the extrusion pressure. Criteria are selected for the selection of conditions allowing, after extrusion, to obtain a bar suitable for subsequent thermomechanical processing. The obtained data is supposed to be used for technological calculations of the processes for the production of engineering parts by powder metallurgy methods.

Influence of anisotropic damage evolution on cold forging

This contribution deals with the influence of anisotropic material degradation (damage) within numerical simulations of cold forging. For that purpose, two constitutive frameworks for modeling ductile damage are presented: an isotropic and an anisotropic model. In a first step, both models are calibrated based on a uniaxial tensile test. Then, the forward rod extrusion process is simulated with the isotropic model. The deformation of a characteristic element is transferred to the anisotropic model and the local response is investigated. Both models are compared to one another in terms of the process induced ductile damage. It will be shown, that the magnitude of the induced damage agrees reasonably well, but that the orientation of ductile damage is of major importance.

Investigation of the Effect of Manufacturing Methods and Sr Addition on the Structure and Properties of Solder 34А (Al – 27% Cu – 6% Si)

The advantages and disadvantages of Russian solder 34А (Al–27% Cu–6% Si) used for brazing aluminium alloys are described. It is demonstrated that modification of solder by Sr significantly reduces the size and morphology of phases (Si and CuAl2 ), but does not have a marked affected on mechanical and production properties. The structure and properties of solder bars prepared by vacuum suction casting, hot extrusion, and continuous casting are compared. The main regimes are determined for continuous casting and hot isothermal extrusion of solder metal rods 3-4 mm diameter. It is shown that the best mechanical properties are exhibited by rods prepared by hot extrusion with a degree of reduction of 300. It is shown that the manufacturing method of filler metal rods does not have a marked effect on spreading kinetics during brazing and on the sizes of structural components within brazed joints.

On the Friction Conditions in FEM Simulations of Cold Extrusion

Friction is a very important issue for calculating the punch force and energy consumption in cold extrusion. FEM simulations are commonly used to investigate this process, but the choice of the friction’s model and set-up parameter have influence on the results. In this work FEM simulations of cold forward extrusion of rods were performed using the commercial code DEFORMTM in axisymmetric 2D deformation mode with Lagrangian formulation considering Tresca’s friction model and two parameters as set-up: constant friction factor m or constant frictional shear stress τ. Over the deformation stages of the process, the influence of the friction parameters on the simulated force-displacement curves was analyzed. In addition, metal flow prediction and the profile of the actual frictional stress at the billet-container interface were studied. For the investigated tooling geometry and dimensions, it was found that for low levels of friction (m ≤ 0.1), both parameters can be suitably used to study the forming process, since they provided similar force-displacement curves and metal flow prediction. For higher levels of friction, the use of □ as input provided most stable and reliable results, since in this case, the simulated force-displacement curves agreed very well with experimental result, the effective frictional stresses values were more constant, and the relative frictional stresses resulted closest to the input value.

Prediction of Ductile Damage in the Process Chain of Caliber Rolling and Forward Rod Extrusion

Many metal forming processes involve several steps, which influence the shape and properties of the final component. The previous manufacturing process of the semi-finished component influences the properties of extruded components. The authors analyze the evolution of damage and voids in the sequence of caliber rolling to cold forward rod extrusion. The analysis is performed with the help of a variant of the Lemaitre model, microstructural analysis of the void area fraction and density measurements. The numerical analysis of this process chain makes use of a fully three-dimensional simulation approach. Even though the damage distribution is non-axisymmetric in caliber rolling, the distribution is almost axisymmetric after cold forward extrusion. The shoulder opening angle in extrusion is varied to compare model predictions with experiments. The decrease in density is largest for the largest shoulder opening angle and smallest for the smallest shoulder opening angle. The simulations agree qualitatively well with the experiments in term of the measured void area fraction and the density changes. The quantitative comparison reveals differences of one to two orders of magnitude.

Flow curves up to high strains considering load reversal and damage

The new idea is to produce specimens by forward rod extrusion, where in the core of the extrudate a deviatoric tension-loading is present, which is superposed by an adjustable hydrostatic pressure. Various damage levels are hence possible in the extrudate. Conducting tensile and upsetting tests with the pre-strained specimens both the influence of a load reversal as well as the material weakening through ductile damage on the resulting flow curve is explored. Not only can the results be utilized to identify flow curves of materials up to high strains (ε > 1.7), but also to get new insights into the plastic material behaviour, which can be used for generating or adapting new damage models as well as kinematic hardening models under cold forging conditions. The proposed method was first assessed by means of analytical and numerical methods and then validated experimentally, by the example of the typical cold forging steel 16MnCrS5.

Defining parameters for control of extruding wire by friction process

Friction stir extrusion is an innovative direct-recycling technology for metal machining chips. During the process a specifically designed rotating tool is plunged into a cylindrical matrix containing the scraps to be recycled. The stirring action of the tool prompts solid bonding related phenomena allowing the back extrusion of a full dense rod. This process results to be particularly relevant because allows the reuse of the scrap without any previous treatment. Experiments have been carried out in order to investigate the influence of the process parameters on the extrudes quality and a numerical model has been developed in order to simulate the evolution of the material flow.

Numerical and experimental study of the process parameters effect on the void evolution in the cold extrusion of rods

Elimination of defects such as voids and internal cavities is required in metal forming processes to avoid premature failure of mechanical components during service. In this paper, the effect of different parameters on the void closure behavior is studied in the cold extrusion of rods. A three dimensional nonlinear dynamic finite element model is developed for this purpose. Experiments are also performed on aluminum samples to verify the accuracy of the finite element model. Results of the developed model are in good agreement with experimental findings. It is observed that voids contract in all directions during the direct extrusion which is in contrast to some other metal forming processes like forging and rolling. Effect of parameters such as die semi-angle, friction coefficient and void location on the void evolution is systematically investigated and discussed. The results of this study can help industries using metal extrusion for optimized design and control of the process to reduce voids and porosity and increase the strength of their product.

DivIVA concentrates mycobacterial cell envelope assembly for initiation and stabilization of polar growth

In many model organisms, diffuse patterning of cell wall peptidoglycan synthesis by the actin homolog MreB enables the bacteria to maintain their characteristic rod shape. In Caulobacter crescentus and Escherichia coli, MreB is also required to sculpt this morphology de novo. Mycobacteria are rod‐shaped but expand their cell wall from discrete polar or subpolar zones. In this genus, the tropomyosin‐like protein DivIVA is required for the maintenance of cell morphology. DivIVA has also been proposed to direct peptidoglycan synthesis to the tips of the mycobacterial cell. The precise nature of this regulation is unclear, as is its role in creating rod shape from scratch. We find that DivIVA localizes nascent cell wall and covalently associated mycomembrane but is dispensable for the assembly process itself. Mycobacterium smegmatis rendered spherical by peptidoglycan digestion or by DivIVA depletion are able to regain rod shape at the population level in the presence of DivIVA. At the single cell level, there is a close spatiotemporal correlation between DivIVA foci, rod extrusion and concentrated cell wall synthesis. Thus, although the precise mechanistic details differ from other organisms, M. smegmatis also establish and propagate rod shape by cytoskeleton‐controlled patterning of peptidoglycan. Our data further support the emerging notion that morphology is a hardwired trait of bacterial cells.

Analytical and experimental bond strength investigation of cold forged composite shafts

Composite cold forging denotes the simultaneous processing of hybrid raw parts by cold forging operations. The objective is the manufacturing of composite components by means of joining by plastic deformation. For lightweight purposes, composite shafts were produced by forward rod extrusion of backward extruded steel cups, into which an aluminum core has been inserted. The final composite shafts possess a wear-resistant outer steel sleeve and a light aluminum core. An analytical model has been developed to predict the strength of the force fit of composite shafts produced by cold forging. Push-out tests were conducted in order to experimentally determine the bond strength for the validation of the model. The analytically estimated bond strengths are in good accordance with the experimental values determined by push-out tests. The bond strength can be increased significantly by structuring the inner surface of the cups for the hybrid raw part to cause a form fit between steel sleeve and aluminum core after forward rod extrusion. Metallurgical bonds are not established between steel and aluminum in the investigated composite cold forged shafts.

The Acoustic Impedance and other Properties of (1-3) Piezoceramics Polymer Composite

The work is focused on an attempt to develop a route for the fabrication of piezoceamic-polymer composites having (1-3) type connectivity. The process included the extrusion of rods of diameter approximately 200 mm. A commercial piezoelectric, PC-5 was modified by addition of a lithium/bismuth based glass former together with excess PbO to lower the sintering temperature to about 1000 °C. The fast firing sintering was employed. The rods were assembled and impregnated with an epoxy resin to form 1-3 composites containing approximately 50 and 20 vol% piezoceramic. The measurement values showed that, the piezoelectric constant, d33= 232 pCN-1and 215 pCN-1, thickness electromechanical coupling coefficient, kt= 0.51 and 0.5 and the mechanical quality factor, Qm= 14 and 5 for the composites containg PZT rods at 50 vol% and 20 vol% respectively. Their acoustic impedances were 5.1 and 3.6 for the 50 vol% and 20 vol% of PZT rods respectively. The results show that with lower volume% of PZT could result in lower acoustic impedance which can be further improved for biomedical imaging and hydrophone applications.

Design of continuous Friction Stir Extrusion machines for metal chip recycling: issues and difficulties

Friction Stir Extrusion is an innovative direct-recycling technology developed for metal machining chips. During the process, a rotating die is plunged into a cylindrical chamber containing the material to be recycled. The stirring action of the die prompts solid bonding phenomena allowing the back extrusion of a full dense rod. One of the main weakness of this technology is the discontinuity of the process itself that limits the extrudates volume to the capacity of the chamber. In order to overcome that limitation, a dedicated extrusion fixture has to be developed, keeping into account the concurrent needs of a continuous machine. The geometry of the die has to ensure proper pressure in the extrusion channel to prompt the extrusion while allowing the continuous loading of fresh charge. Furthermore, the chips entering the chamber have to find proper conditions for the solid bonding to happen. In this study, the design challenges of a continuous Friction Stir Extrusion machine are described and analyzed, giving an insight on the possible solutions using both experimental, numerical analysis, and keeping into account the sensor equipment necessary to monitor the process.

A flow stress model for steel in cold forging process range and the associated method for parameter identification

Detailed thermo-mechanical characterization of DIN 16MnCr5 covering the process range of cold forging applications (0.01 s−1 $$ \le \dot{\varepsilon}\le $$ 40 s−1, 25 °C ≤T≤ 400 °C) by compression tests revealed flow stress instabilities associated with dynamic strain aging (DSA) which cannot be reproduced by conventional flow stress models. As a remedy, a flow stress model capable of capturing sharp changes in flow stress, strain hardening, and strain rate sensitivity is proposed. Then, a method for parameter identification is presented which can deal with inhomogeneous deformation heating of the specimen at relatively high-strain-rate tests. The presented method involves response surface-based numerical optimization of the flawed compression tests coupled with finite element (FE) simulation. The proposed flow stress model and the extracted parameters are validated in a forward rod extrusion process without using any case-specific determined parameters in FE simulation. A natural agreement is obtained between the experimental and the predicted results in terms of both the force-displacement curve and the part geometry. The authors think that the flow stress instabilities encountered in the cold forging process range may have further consequences in other inverse analysis attempts such as friction coefficient or critical damage parameter determination and that the proper treatment of material data as put forth in this study can improve the predictive capability of process modeling.