Rock-hewn Churches Research Articles

ЦЕРКОВЬ МЕДХАНЕ АЛЕМ В АДИ КЕШО И СЛОЖНОСТИ ДАТИРОВКИ СКАЛЬНЫХ ПАМЯТНИКОВ РЕГИОНА ТЫГРАЙ (ЭФИОПИЯ)

ЦЕРКОВЬ МЕДХАНЕ АЛЕМ В АДИ КЕШО И СЛОЖНОСТИ ДАТИРОВКИ СКАЛЬНЫХ ПАМЯТНИКОВ РЕГИОНА ТЫГРАЙ (ЭФИОПИЯ)

The Newly Opened Rock Church in the Ground Part of the Monastery Complex The Baptistery from the Ivanovo Rock-hewn Monasteries

In another field study in the region of the Ivanovo rock-hewn monasteries, led by Evgeni Koev, a rock-hewn church was found in the area of the Monastery Complex “The Baptistery”. This specific site is a rock-hewn temple which has a unique location at the ground level of the rock wreath. It has not been documented in previous studies of this area. The church has a carefully shaped and processed eastern half. There is a carved characteristic absid in eastern direction, replacing the holy throne, a prosthetic niche and a replica of the rock-hewn Vladish throne. For the first time, the rock-hewn church is mapped and described in detail, giving a specific interpretation of the time of its construction and use, as well as showing the specific purpose of the temple and the adjacent monastic cells. Keywords: Rock-hewn Church , Newly Discovered, Documented, Baptistery

История изучения скальных церквей области Тэмбен региона Тыграй, Эфиопия

The article is devoted to the history of the study of rock-hewn churches of the Temben district in the Tigray region in northern Ethiopia. The text provides an overview of the relatively small number of publications on this topic. Particular attention has been paid to the approaches of various authors to the classification and dating of the monuments. Mainly, local monuments are little-known, despite their preliminary lists compiled at the turn of 1960s —1970s. The historical interest in the rock-hewn churches of Tigray and especially of the Temben region is currently increasing and the comprehensive study of these churches is yet to be made.

Lalibela: Spiritual Genealogy beyond Epistemic Violence in Ethiopia

The rock hewn churches of Lalibela have special significance in the formation of Ethiopia’s consciousness as a sacred land of God’s covenant. Numerous local stories express the sanctity of Lalibela as a Heavenly Jerusalem on earth and the faithful use holy soil from the churches to cure the sick. Every year, thousands of Tewahido believers travel to receive blessings. Local scholars who studied decades in the indigenous education system serve as intermediaries between the sanctity of the place and the people, and transmit their knowledge to the younger generation. This paper traces this spiritual genealogy to the creation story in the Kebra Nagast regarding the Ark of the Covenant (Tabot) and relates it to Lalibela’s famous churches. It demonstrates the existence of enduring spiritual genealogy that considers place as alive and powerful. The paper also reflects on how the loss of indigenous sources of knowledges, particularly through the stealing or taking of manuscripts by foreign collectors, and the rise of a Eurocentric interpretation of the history of Lalibela challenges this millennial spiritual tradition. It argues that this has resulted in epistemic violence, the practice of interpreting local knowledge with a foreign lens in a way that reinforces colonial Eurocentric views that are then internalised within Africans themselves. Despite such challenges, it shows how the genealogy continues through the very identity and practice of local communities and individuals.

PHOTOGRAMMETRY USING VIRTUAL RESTORATION OF WALL-PAINTINGS OF THE ROCK-HEWN CHURCHES IN THE GÖREME VALLEY, CAPPADOCIA AND ITS VALUE FOR THE MUSEUM’S CONTENTS

Abstract. Göreme Valley located in the center of Cappadocia, Turkey is famous for its spectacular landscape characterized by erosion. There are more than one hundred rock-hewn churches in Göreme Valley and some of them have distinct wall-paintings in the Byzantine style. Although a significant place for Byzantine art many of the churches here are at risk of collapse due to erosion. Furthermore there is no comprehensive documentation of the churches concerning both the wall-paintings and their three-dimensional shapes This paper aims: 1) to present two kinds of virtual restoration using 3D-modeling by photogrammetry, virtual toning and virtual restoration, based on Göreme Valley's special context, in which many churches were painted by the same painter/workshop; 2) to discuss the value of the use of 3D-modeled materials as a museum exhibition.

The rock-hewn church of Nazugn Maryam: an example of the endangered antiquities of North Wallo, Ethiopia.

Most of the rock hewn and cave churches of Ethiopia to the west and south of Lalibela have escaped the notices of scholars who in different times visited the rock hewn churches of Lalibela and its surroundings. Nazugn Maryam, one of the ancient rock hewn churches of this area is neither scholarly researched nor professionally conserved. The main objective of this study was to document the architecture and the conservation problems of this hypogeum. Data of the study was collected through interview, field observation and analysis of the archives. The study intimates that the church is traditionally believed to have been carved by Abuna Muse, who is regarded as the second bishop of Ethiopia. Being carved out of a single rock, it is rectangular and monolithic. Pointed and arched styles of both opened and false windows, buttresses, and horizontal beam are some of the dominant architectures of the church projected on its exterior facades. Internally it has a basilica with aisles divided by pillars, with no arches and capitals. However, its architectural values are deteriorating due to natural agents such as torrential summer rainfall and sunlight. Besides, the elements attempt at conservation since 1950s have also contributed to its deterioration. New materials like cement and basaltic stone were introduced during the restoration and this has exacerbated its deterioration endangering this important hypogeum. This paper examines how this introduction of new material poses challenges to the future conservation decisions.

An Investigating the SWOT Analysis of Cultural Tourism Heritage for Sustainable Tourism Development: The Case of LALIBELA Rock Hewn Churches, World Heritage Site, Ethiopia

Yearly, many nations try to inscribe their heritages under the list of world heritage site for the ensuring the sustainable tourism development. However there is a big problem of examining the strengths, weakness, opportunities and threats on the heritages for sustainable tourism development. The main objectives of his study are to inculcate the strength, weakness, opportunities and threats of cultural tourism heritage for sustainable tourism development in the case of world heritage site, Lalibela. To undertake this study, descriptive research was employed. The target populations were, the tour guides, the local communities, the hotel and tourism experts, religious fathers and tourists. Twenty one respondents were chosen through purposive sampling. The data instruments used were filed observation, in-depth- interview through telephoning and face to face and document review. The findings proved that strengths like the Lalibela cross, unique festivals, quality accommodation establishments, indigenous culture, 11 rock hewn churches, spectacular topography. Weaknesses are coordination problem, lack of professionals, sufficient budget problem, and lack of concern form UNESCO. Opportunities are government attention, to be pride, foreign exchange, developing awareness. Threats are carrying capacity problem, globalization, dependency on tourism, political instability. Thus, the stakeholders at the Lalibela destinations should try to identify minimize and solve the weakness threats and use the strengths and opportunities to ensure the sustainable tourism development at the destination.

Efficacy of laser cleaning in the removal of biological patina on the volcanic scoria of the rock-hewn churches of Lalibela, Ethiopia

The Lalibela rock-hewn churches are one of the most important religious pilgrimage sites in Ethiopia. These churches are carved from the scoriaceous basalt rock substrate, which has been exposed to attack by biological agents with significant loss of surface material. Particularly, the widespread growth of lichens and other microorganisms on the carved surfaces of the churches has proven to represent a substantial threat for the preservation of the site. In this study, laboratory tests have been conducted to assess the feasibility of using laser technology as an efficient cleaning method of biological patina from polymineralic stone substrates. Multi-analytical techniques were applied for the characterization of the stone samples collected from two of the Lalibela churches: Bete Giyorgis and Bete Amanuel. Stone samples artificially inoculated with bacteria, yeast, fungi isolates, and lichen-encrusted samples were laser cleaned using UV and IR laser wavelengths. The high content of Fe and Ti oxides and the high porosity have made the stone surfaces easily susceptible to low-energy laser treatment. Results indicate that laser cleaning can be applied to polymineralic lithotypes and UV irradiation can successfully remove lichen colonies. Further studies need to be conducted to optimize the laser procedure in polymineralic, high porosity stones.

Geological and Geomechanical Properties of Abraha-Atsibha and Wukro rock-hewn churches and its surroundings, Tigray Region, Northern Ethiopia

Globally well-known ancient rock-hewn churches are present in Ethiopia in general and particularly in the central and eastern parts of Tigray regional state. They are important sites of heritage and tourism. Most of them are facing destabilization problem in different degree due to natural and anthropogenic factors. Among the affected, two churches hewn into sandstone located near Abreha-Atsibaha and Wukro (Kirkos/Cherkos church) in Tigray region were chosen for detailed study in terms of geological and engineering geological condition of the rocks in to which they are hewn. Both of them are affected by weathering and seepage. Both are carved into Mesozoic Adigrat sandstone that occupy higher elevations in topography, red in color and with iron and silica-rich alternating bands. Petrographic data suggest that the rock is dominated by quartz followed by feldspars; opaque and heavy minerals; pore spaces and carbonate/iron/silica cement. The rock is characterized by low to medium unconfined compressive strength. The alternating bands with varying mineralogical composition differ in mechanical properties and are responding differently to weathering and erosion. This is resulting in the development of minor spalling, pitting etc in the pillars, walls and roofs of the churches. Keeping the geological condition in view remedial measures are to be planned to minimize deterioration with time. Keywords : Geological, Geomechanical, Rock hewn-Church, Abraha-Atsibaha, Tigray, Ethiopia.

The Efficacy of Heritage Interpretation at the Lalibela Rock-Hewn Churches in Ethiopia: exploring the need for integrating ICT-mediation

The Efficacy of Heritage Interpretation at the Lalibela Rock-Hewn Churches in Ethiopia: exploring the need for integrating ICT-mediation

Digital non-metric image-based documentation for the preservation and restoration of mural paintings: the case of the Üzümlü Rock-hewn Church, Turkey

<p class="VARKeywords">Digital photography is a valuable documentation technique for the preservation of a cultural heritage site because highresolution photography presents both general and detailed views of mural paintings and mural condition in a single image. Advanced digital technology is particularly helpful for preserving and restoring mural paintings given that the painting condition is recorded on high-resolution base maps shows how mural paintings are damaged by environmental stresses, mechanical damages and inappropriate treatments, among others. In addition, photogrammetric software technology is rapidly advancing and being applied to the digital documentation of mural paintings or rock art. Nevertheless, human experience and investigation of mural paintings is indispensable for recording the condition of mural paintings, and this highlights that every step of documentation conducted in situ is desirable. However, images by photogrammetric software do not show sufficient resolution because most normal portable computers used on-site are not usually sufficient. Based on our experience at the Üzümlü Church in Cappadocia, Turkey, we propose a new approach to document mural conditions in situ for preservation and restoration. Our method is based on a comparison of a non-metric but approximate high-resolution image with the actual mural paintings. The method does not require special instruments and enables digital documentation of the mural condition in situ at a low cost, in a short time frame and using minimal human resources.</p>

Digital non-metric image-based documentation for the preservation and restoration of mural paintings: the case of the Üzümlü Rock-hewn Church, Turkey

<p class="VARKeywords">Digital photography is a valuable documentation technique for the preservation of a cultural heritage site because highresolution photography presents both general and detailed views of mural paintings and mural condition in a single image. Advanced digital technology is particularly helpful for preserving and restoring mural paintings given that the painting condition is recorded on high-resolution base maps shows how mural paintings are damaged by environmental stresses, mechanical damages and inappropriate treatments, among others. In addition, photogrammetric software technology is rapidly advancing and being applied to the digital documentation of mural paintings or rock art. Nevertheless, human experience and investigation of mural paintings is indispensable for recording the condition of mural paintings, and this highlights that every step of documentation conducted in situ is desirable. However, images by photogrammetric software do not show sufficient resolution because most normal portable computers used on-site are not usually sufficient. Based on our experience at the Üzümlü Church in Cappadocia, Turkey, we propose a new approach to document mural conditions in situ for preservation and restoration. Our method is based on a comparison of a non-metric but approximate high-resolution image with the actual mural paintings. The method does not require special instruments and enables digital documentation of the mural condition in situ at a low cost, in a short time frame and using minimal human resources.</p>

Churches Built in the Caves of Lasta (Wällo Province, Ethiopia): A Chronology

The five churches of Yǝmrǝḥannä Krǝstos, Ǝmäkina Mädḫane ʿAläm, Ǝmäkina Lǝdätä Maryam, Walye Iyäsus and Žämmädu Maryam are all built in caves in the massif of Abunä Yosef, situated in the Lasta region of Wollo. Changes in their architectural forms suggest that they were constructed over a period of several hundred years in the order listed and as such represent a significant chronological model against which many of Ethiopia’s rock-hewn churches may be compared. Until the publication of this paper, it has been universally accepted that the church of Yǝmrǝḥannä Krǝstos was built in the second half of the 12th century under the sponsorship of an eponymous king. Aspects of the church’s architecture, namely the absence of a raised space reserved for the priesthood before the triumphal arch (the bema), of any sign of a chancel barrier around it, of western service rooms, of a vestibule and narthex, and of the presence of a reading platform (representative of the Coptic ambo), of a full-width open western bay (allowing for a ‘return aisle’), and of arches carrying the aisle ceilings, all point to a date of construction around the mid-13th century. In fact, the closest parallels to Yǝmrǝḥannä Krǝstos may be found in Lalibäla’s second group of monolithic churches, Amanuʾel and Libanos. Closely associated also is the church of Gännätä Maryam. A painting of the Maiestas Domini in the south-east side room (pastophorion) of the latter suggests that the room served as an extension of the sanctuary. By the end of the 13th century, as witnessed by Ǝmäkina Mädḫane ʿAläm and the other churches built in caves, the full-width sanctuary becomes a characteristic which endures throughout 14th- and 15th -century Ethiopian church architecture. Yǝmrǝḥannä Krǝstos and Gännätä Maryam stand on the cusp of a major liturgical change which coincides with the transfer of royal power from the Zagwe dynasty to their Solomonic successors, who sought legitimacy by following Coptic practices.

Cappadocian ignimbrite cave churches: stone degradation and conservation strategies

The focus of this research is to investigate the minero-petrographic features and the conservation aspects of the stone materials from some rock-hewn churches in Cappadocia region (Turkey) in order to choose the most appropriate consolidating systems to improve the resistance against the weathering and degradation phenomena of this unique world heritage site. In this study, specimens from the Tokali church in the Goreme’s Open Air Museum, and from the Forty Martyrs Church in Sahinefendi were analysed by optical microscopy and X-ray diffraction in order to examine the properties of the rock and especially how well preserved it is. The ignimbrite samples show a porphyritic structure with vitrophyric groundmass and crystalloclastic-vitrophyric texture. The presence of smectite and illite caused serious damage to the rock structure such as cracks, decohesion, exfoliation, and disaggregation phenomena.The consolidation tests were performed on the ignimbrite specimens, sized according to the standard procedure, by using three commercial silica-based products: NanoEstel, Estel 1000, and Estel 1100. The consolidant penetration was investigated by titanium labelling procedure followed by scanning electron microscopy–energy dispersive spectroscopy analysis. Colour measurements were used to study the possible chromatic changes due to the treatments. The capillary test was performed to evaluate the amount of water absorbed by the stone surfaces before and after the consolidating treatments. Lastly, the surface cohesion due to the consolidation was investigated by using the peeling test carried out on untreated and treated samples.The consolidating tests showed that the solvent-based products (Estel 1000, Estel 1100) exhibit a better distribution than the aqueous suspensions (NanoEstel). Nevertheless NanoEstel gives better results in the capillary absorption test, suggesting that this product has the ability to leave the stone porous structure substantially unaltered.

A multianalytical approach to investigate stone biodeterioration at a UNESCO world heritage site: the volcanic rock-hewn churches of Lalibela, Northern Ethiopia

A multianalytical approach combining Optical Microscopy (OM), Backscattered Variable Pressure Scanning Electron Microscopy + Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (VP-BSEM + EDS), Powder X-ray Diffractometry (PXRD), Raman Spectroscopy, and Microbiological techniques has been applied to characterize decay products and processes occurring at the surface of two rock-hewn churches (Bete Gyorgis and Bete Amanuel) at the UNESCO’s World Heritage site of Lalibela, Northern Ethiopia. The two churches were carved into volcanic scoria deposits of basaltic composition. In their geological history, the Lalibela volcanic rocks underwent late to post-magmatic hydrothermal alteration together with partial laterization and are therefore characterized by a decay-prone highly vesicular microtexture with late stage to post-magmatic precipitation of secondary mineral phases (calcite–zeolite–smectite). The main objective of the study was to gain a better insight into the weathering products and mechanisms affecting the surface of the stone monuments and to assess the relative contribution of natural “geological” weathering processes versus biological/salt attack in stone decay at this unique heritage site. Results indicate that while the main cause of bulk rock deterioration and structural failure could be related to the stone inherited “geological” features, biological attack by micro- (bacteria) and/or macro- (lichens) organisms is currently responsible for severe stone surface physical and chemical weathering leading to significant weakening of the stone texture and to material loss at the surface of the churches walls. A prompt and careful removal of the biological patinas with the correct biocidal treatment is therefore recommended.

Analysis of rock samples collected from rock hewn churches of Lalibela, Ethiopia using laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy

With the aim to study alteration processes of the rock hewn churches from Lalibela (Ethiopia), we applied Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) technique to measure the elemental composition both of the bulk rock materials and their external layers, exposed to the environmental factors. The analytical plasma was generated by nanosecond pulses of an Nd: YAG laser emitting at 1064 nm. Different major and minor sample constituents were detected, including Ca, Mg, Na, Fe, Ti, Al and K. The detected O emission originates both from air surrounding and the sample, while the intensity of N lines, coming exclusively from air, was used for the LIBS signal normalization. By depth profiling of the weathered basalt rock, we observed a lower presence of K in the external layers, corresponding to the first 5 laser shots. The emission from this element is anti-correlated with the line intensities from O, and this was attributed to the variations in relative abundances of clay minerals and K-feldspar. The analogue measurements were performed on the tuff rock, and compared to the spectra from powder samples containing only the external soft material, scratched from the rocks. These analyses show an abundance of H in the weathered, wetted layers and suggest that cations are lost from the constituent primary minerals and replaced by H+; this process disrupts the lattice structure and causes a marked loss of strength. The studies presented here demonstrate that LIBS is a useful technique for studying the alteration processes in the rocks, caused by environmental factors.

English

This study demonstrates the Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), Raman spectroscopy andscanning electron microscope - energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer (SEM-EDS) techniques which has been applied to characterize decay products and processes occurring at the surface of rock-hewn churches at the UNESCO’s World Heritage site of Lalibela, Northern Ethiopia. Spectroscopic analyses comparing the observed frequencies with the available literature, minerals were identified. A special emphasis is devoted to the presence of whewellite/weddellite and kaolinite minerals, never pointed out before this study in the rock hewn churches of Lalibela, and their possible roles on rock decay. The identification of montmorillonite as a weathering product up to 20 mm from the rock/atmosphere interface beyond the level at which kaolinite, whewellite and gypsum are found, suggests that montmorillonite may penetrate even deeper into the rock substrate causing major rock decay. Results indicate that biological attack by green algae and lichens is currently responsible for severe stone surface, physical and chemical weathering leading to considerable weakening of the churches walls. A prompt and careful removal of the biological and other deposits with the non-destructive method (laser cleaning) treatment is therefore recommended.   Key words: Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), Raman, whewellite, kaolinite, rock hewn churches, mineral characterization.

Integrated geological-architectural pilot study of the Biet Gabriel-Rufael rock hewn church in Lalibela, northern Ethiopia

We present a geological and architectural integrated pilot study, aiming at the preservation of the Biet Gabriel-Rufael church, located in Lalibela, the worldwide known Ethiopian rock hewn monumental site protected by UNESCO since 1978. The town developed since the Neolithic up to the medieval age, as inferred from the traces of three distinct architectural phases. Lalibela was built on a geological substratum made of rocks belonging to the Ethiopian Plateau suite, which is mainly composed of basalts of fissural origin or derived from shield volcanoes. The geological units are composed of alternating massive and scoriaceous basalts. The main scoriaceous basalt level, embedded within the massive basalts, is 30–40 m thick and corresponds to the horizon within which the Biet Gabriel-Rufael church all the other monuments of Lalibela have been carved. Therefore, the evolution of the town was strongly conditioned by the occurrence and extent of the softer scoriaceous basalt level. Many fracture systems of both natural (i.e. geological) and anthropic origin (these latter connected to the carving of the church), were recognized. The fracture pattern determined the subdivision of the church into different blocks that can behave independently, thus compromising the stability of the monument. A net of deformometers and fracture gauges was installed for the monitoring of the fracture system and a preliminary Finite Element analysis, following the approach used for underground excavations, was performed, with the aim of elucidate the mechanical behaviour of the rock. The integration between geo-mechanical approach to the rock mass and the architectural study of the critical situation due to the carving and connected to buildings, resulted in the precise individuation of future interventions devoted to the conservation of these monuments.

Eine weitere arabische Inschrift von der osttigrayischen Handelsroute: Hinweis auf eine muslimische Kultstätte in der "dunklen Periode"?

This article discusses a fragmented Arabic inscription, which is kept in the rock-hewn church of Č̣ärqos Wǝq̠ro in eastern Tǝgray. The text could be read as one of the 99 names of God or an invocation of God. A stylistic comparison with Arabic inscriptions of eastern Tǝgray, Dahlak and other areas suggests that it was not produced locally, but rather imported, and dates to the 9th to 10th century approximately. It is thus one of the earliest witnesses for the presence of Muslims in Tǝgray in the “dark period” after the decline of Aksum. Style and content show that the inscription did not belong to a funeral complex, but rather to a place of worship. Its location points to a connection with nearby Nägaš, where Muslims revere the holy grave of the naǧāšī of the Ḥadīṯ, and which is located on the same route as Wǝq̠ro connecting the area with the Red Sea.

Geoheritage conservation in Ethiopia: the case of the Simien Mountains

Geoheritage conservation in Ethiopia: the case of the Simien Mountains Ethiopia constitutes one of the most significant environmental and cultural reserves on Earth. Ethiopia's natural and cultural tourist attractions are mostly associated with geological features: the active Ethiopian and Afar rifts as well as the Simien and Bale massifs are few examples. Ethiopia's cultural history, religious manifestations and civilization, like the rock-hewn churches of Lalibela and the stelae of Axum, are also imprinted in rock. Geomorphological and geological features, notably the isolation of the north-western highlands from the external world by the harsh Afar depression close to the sea, determined the route of Ethiopian history. Though tourism has been identified as a major sustainable development sector, systematic geoheritage evaluation and conservation strategies are lacking in the country. I this paper the Simien Mountains are presented as major geoheritages which should be prioritized for geoconservation in order to develop sustainable tourism (geotourism) in the area.