Erosion Of Rocks Research Articles

Canonical correlation analysis as a tool in the provenance study of overbank sediments from the small mountainous watersheds

Canonical correlation analysis (CCA) is used in this study in order to trace the lineage of overbank sediment from the initial erosion of the parent rocks down to deposition of detrital material in alluvium of the small mountainous watersheds of the Žumberak area, Croatia. It helps to elucidate relations between the hierarchically structured systems (rocks, minerals, elements) represented by the ensembles of lithological, mineralogical and geochemical variables. Taking their place in the vertical order of hierarchical complexity, geochemistry and mineralogy of the recent material are considered dependent variable regarding the related watershed lithology, with geochemical variables (major and trace elements) last in the chain. Three canonical models are built and cross-compared in order to unravel the between-level relationships and infer the basic patterns of mineral and geochemical flux from the source rocks to basin. From these, the two hierarchical (provenance) chains epitomized in recombination of the first two canonical functions have been derived highlighting complementary provenances, weathering styles, and dispersion avenues in alluvial sedimentation of the study area. The first clearly separates carbonate from siliciclastic sedimentary source while the second illuminates the origin of phyllosilicate and ferric oxyhydroxide phases with associated suite of elements in absence of clear carbonate signal.

Subaerial freshwater phosphatic stromatolites in Deer Cave, Sarawak — A unique geobiological cave formation

A suite of distinctive freshwater subaerial phosphatic stromatolites is developed close to the northeastern entrance of Deer Cave, Gunung Mulu National Park, Sarawak, Borneo, in conditions of very low light but ample supply of nutrients from guano. These stromatolites are not particulate; they are composed of alternating layers of more porous and more dense amorphous hydroxylapatite. This biomineralization occurs as moulds of coccoid (the majority) and filamentous (less abundant) cyanobacteria. Mineralization occurs at a pH of ~ 7.0 in the extracellular sheaths and in micro-domains of varying carbonate content in the surrounding mucus of the biofilm. The most recent surfaces that are not yet strongly mineralized show still-living filamentous, coccoid and rod-shaped forms. Trace element composition shows enrichment in metal ions, especially Mn and Zn. The stromatolites are present as horizontal shelves arranged in series on a steep rock face that is vertically under a guano-laden shelf. The rock face undergoes active dissolution from acidic guano drainage water (e.g., pH of 2.43) and from aggressive rainwater from an overhead discharge. However, the rock surface under the stromatolite is protected while the rest of the cliff face is backcut, creating a hoodoo-like effect. The stromatolites are ~ 15–20 cm deep, ~ 4–7 cm thick, and of variable width, generally ~ 50 cm. Eventually, guano and biological detritus in the descending water film lodge in the lee of the stromatolite lip, causing local acidification and erosion of stromatolite and rock on the underside of the ledge. A dynamic equilibrium is established between upward accretion of the fresh surface and destruction at the base such that the base of the stromatolite does not reflect the date of its inception and the stromatolite climbs up the wall.

Source and evolution of the clinopyroxenes in the Loire and Seine basins (France) based on grain morphology and color

Variation in the characteristics (color, morphology) of clinopyroxene grains (CPX) in alluvial deposits and other surficial formations in the Loire valley, the Gâtinais and the Beauce show that many are pristine and come directly from recent volcanic eruptions, whereas weathered grains, clearly reworked, come from erosion of Cenozoic and Pleistocene volcanic rocks of the French Massif Central. After deposition, the CPX have been increasingly altered by longer exposures. Weathering of brown CPX yields paler minerals which are greenish-brown, colourless or two-coloured. Similarly, the CPX found in the Seine basin are from recent volcanic ash or old Sologne deposits, and not from Loire alluvial deposits, so that a Pleistocene palaeo-Loire-Seine river is improbable.

Quaternary-scale evolution of sequences of talus flatirons in the hyperarid Negev

Talus flatiron sequences are ubiquitous landforms in arid and semiarid regions characterized by horizontal erodible rocks capped by more resistant rocks. Alternating phases of deposition and erosion lead to the formation of generations of talus flatirons in which ancient ones are located farther from the source cliff. The existing conceptual model of this systematic spatial distribution of talus flatirons is related to glacial–interglacial climatic cycles and to relatively high rates of cliff retreat. Three groups of talus flatirons were analyzed in the northeastern hyperarid Negev desert. The analyses include mapping, age determination using optically stimulated luminescence and cosmogenic nuclide exposure dating, electrical resistivity tomography and sedimentological and soil analyses. All talus flatirons contain gypsic-salic soil catena typical to hyperarid climate (< 80 mm yr − 1 ). No pedogenic indicators of past wetter environments such as buried calcic soil horizons, evidence of intense biogenic activity, or buried organic material were observed. 10Be exposure ages of the talus flatirons suggest that they were deposited during the middle Pleistocene; ~ 610 ka and ~ 170 ka for the oldest and intermediate-aged talus flatiron groups, respectively. These ages, combined with the present location of the talus flatirons relative to the source cliff yield retreat rates of 6–12 and ~ 200 m Ma − 1 for the bedrock cliff and talus flatiron apex, respectively, and in opposite directions. Our results show that (a) climatic changes at glacial–interglacial time scales are not the main controls over the formation of talus flatiron generation, and (b) that significant cliff retreat is not the main cause for the systematic spatial distribution of talus flatiron generations relative to the cliff. Our results indicate that the process of talus flatiron formation in the Negev desert must be associated with the balance between production, deposition, and removal of clasts under hyperarid conditions with only a minor cliff retreat.

Modeling catchment controls on organic carbon fluxes in a meso-scale mountainous river (Luodingjiang), China

This study applied a partial least square regression (PLSR) technique to investigate the relationships between organic carbon fluxes and catchment environmental factors in the Luodingjiang, a meso-scale mountainous tributary of the Zhujiang (Pearl River), China. Catchment environmental characteristics were extracted from various ecological datasets, and river data were developed based on 13 sampling points during six sampling campaigns in 2005. Modeling results indicate that the lithology characterized by rock erodibility in the catchment is the most important control on riverine organic carbon fluxes (dissolved organic carbon (DOC) flux, and particularly particulate organic carbon (POC) flux) and total suspended sediment (TSS) flux in the Luodingjiang. Besides rock erodibility, more environmental variables are positively involved in the model of DOC flux, including precipitation, urban and agricultural area percentages, as well as basin area, while basin slope is negatively involved. Soil organic carbon (SOC) content does not exert a significant control on DOC flux in the study due to its unique spatial distribution with other environmental factors having reverse relationships with DOC flux, such as basin morphology and anthropogenic impacts. The dominant control of lithology on POC flux and TSS flux is considered as a result of the availability of highly erodible rocks in the region, such as coarse-grained granite and poor-cemented purple sandstone. The models developed in this study may be only applicable in the local catchments with similar environmental characteristics, such as hilly regions with weak underlying bedrock. The findings highlight the need for investigating the geographical variations when conducting studies about riverine organic carbon fluxes at the regional or global scale.

Paleoenvironmental changes in the northern South China Sea over the past 28,000 years: A study of TEX 86-derived sea surface temperatures and terrestrial biomarkers

We have generated a record of TEX 86 ( TEX 86 H )-derived sea surface temperatures (SSTs) over the last 28 ka for core MD97-2146 from the northern South China Sea (SCS). The TEX 86 H -derived temperature of a core-top sample corresponds to the SSTs in warmer seasons. The SST record shows a drop during the Oldest Dryas period, an abrupt rise at the onset of the Bølling–Allerød period, a plateau across the Younger Dryas period, and an abrupt rise at the beginning of the Holocene. The glacial–interglacial contrast in TEX 86 H -derived temperature is almost the same as that in foraminiferal Mg/Ca ratio-derived temperature, but it is larger than those in U 37 K ′ and transfer function-derived temperatures. Possible interpretations are: (1) the seasonal shift of glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraether (GDGT) production, (2) the overestimation of temperature change by TEX 86 H , and (3) the underestimation of temperature change by U 37 K ′ and transfer function approaches. The similar variation in TEX 86 H -derived temperature at the study site and Chinese stalagmite δ 18O during the last deglaciation suggests that changes in TEX 86 H -derived temperature in this period reflected atmospheric and oceanic reorganization on a millennial timescale. The long-chain n-alkanes are mainly of higher plant origin before ∼14 ka and a mixture of higher plant and lithic origins after ∼14 ka; the abundance ratio of long-chain to short-chain n-fatty acids decreases at ∼15 ka, suggesting a drastic change in sediment sources at ∼14–15 ka. We attribute the higher content of fresh higher plant n-alkanes and long-chain n-fatty acids before ∼14–15 ka to enhanced aeolian transportation and/or arid environments. Increased precipitation likely due to intensified summer monsoon after ∼14–15 ka enhanced the erosion of sedimentary rocks and increased the contribution of lithic n-alkanes.

Detrital zircon provenance from three turbidite depocenters of the Middle-Upper Triassic Songpan-Ganzi complex, central China: Record of collisional tectonics, erosional exhumation, and sediment production

To test the idea that the voluminous upper Middle to Upper Triassic turbidite strata in the Songpan-Ganzi complex of central China archive a detrital record of Dabie ultrahigh-pressure (UHP) terrane unroofing, we report 2080 single detrital U-Pb zircon ages by sensitive high-resolution ion microprobe–reverse geometry (SHRIMP-RG) and laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) analysis from 29 eastern Songpan-Ganzi complex sandstone samples. Low (<0.07) Th/U zircons, consistent with crystallization under UHP conditions, are rare in eastern Songpan-Ganzi complex zircon, and U-Pb ages of low Th/U zircons are incompatible with a Dabie terrane source. An unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean nearest-neighbor analysis of Kolmogorov-Smirnov two-sample test results reveals that the eastern Songpan-Ganzi complex is not a single contiguous turbidite system but is instead composed of three subsidiary depocenters, each associated with distinct sediment sources. The northeastern depocenter contains zircon ages characterized by Paleozoic and bimodally distributed Precambrian zircon populations, which, together with south- to southeast-directed paleocurrent data, indicate derivation from the retro-side of the Qinling-Dabie (Q-D) collisional orogen wedge. In the central depocenter, the dominantly Paleozoic detrital zircon signature and south- to southwest-oriented paleocurrent indicators reflect a profusion of Paleozoic zircon grains. These data are inter preted to reflect an influx of material derived from erosion of Paleozoic supra-UHP rocks of the Dabie terrane in the eastern Qinling-Dabie orogen, which we speculate may have been enhanced by development of a monsoonal climate. This suggests that erosional unroofing played a significant role in the initial phase of UHP exhumation and likely influenced the petrotectonic and structural evolution of the Qinling-Dabie orogen, as evidenced by compressed Triassic isotherms/grads reported in the Huwan shear zone that bounds the Dabie terrane to the north. The central depocenter deposits reflect a later influx of bimodally distributed Precambrian zircon, signifying either a decrease in the influx of Paleozoic zircon grains due to stalled UHP exhumation and/or dilution of the same influx of Paleozoic zircons by spilling of Precambrian zircon from the northeastern depocenter into the central depocenter basin, perhaps due to infilling and bypass of sediment from the northern depocenter or due to initial collapse and constriction of the eastern Songpan-Ganzi complex basin. The southeastern depocenter of the eastern Songpan-Ganzi complex bears significant Paleozoic, Neoproterozoic, and Paleoproterozoic zircon populations derived from the South China block and Yidun arc complex, likely recording nascent uplift of the Longmenshan deformation belt due to impingement of the Yidun arc complex upon the western margin of the South China block.

Erosion and multiphase flow in porous media

ABSTRACT Experimental results from sand production hollow cylinders tests are presented for cavity failure and sand production quantification. The effects of important parameters such as the sandstone class, stress rate, fluid flow rate, and time are presented and show how they influence sand production. A model for hydro-mechanical erosion of porous rocks is presented as it is applied to the sand production problem in hydrocarbon production. The model is based on a continuum theory for erosion, which regards the continuum as a three-phase medium and establishes a set of mass balance equations for the various phases. The solution requires an additional equation in the form of a constitutive or evolution law for the sand rate. Erosion is coupled with the mechanical behavior of a sand-producing cavity, and leads to enlargement of the erosion zone. Finally, multiphase flow and its effect on sand production is presented experimentally and theoretically by analyzing water invasion in the sand production test.

Substrate controls on the longitudinal profile of bedrock channels: Implications for reach‐scale roughness

In this paper we examine the relationships among bedrock properties and hydraulics in shaping bedrock channel morphology at the reach scale. The Ocoee River and four other bedrock streams in the Blue Ridge province of the southeastern United States, which have reach‐scale differences in bedrock erodibility controlled by lithologic and structural variation, are the focus of this study. We describe a simple conceptual model for concentrated erosion in bedrock channels and test three hypotheses in order to investigate the interactions among rock erodibility, characteristics of undulating rib‐like bed forms, reach‐scale gradient, and hydraulic roughness and energy dissipation. Substrate differences correlate with variation in reach morphology (i.e., gradient, bed form orientation, and amplitude), such that less erodible substrates are associated with steeper reach gradient and with transversely oriented ribs of greater amplitude. One‐dimensional modeling in HEC‐RAS indicated that in the reach with the least erodible substrate and greatest bed slope and rib amplitude, the reach‐averaged hydraulic roughness was the greatest. Increased hydraulic roughness in steeper reaches points to the importance of positive and negative feedbacks in these systems: Greater substrate erosional resistance limits profile lowering, which likely creates steeper bed slopes and greater stream power, creating a self‐enhancing feedback. This local increase in stream power is balanced by increased roughness resulting from the erosional processes that produce bedrock ribs, which represents a self‐regulating feedback. The overall result reflects quantifiable adjustments between substrate resistance and hydraulic driving forces in bedrock channels.

Continual erosion of bare rocks after the Wenchuan earthquake and control strategies

The newly bared rocks created by the Wenchuan earthquake are undergoing continual intensive erosion in the form of detachment and movement of individual grains. Grain erosion is defined as the phenomenon of breaking down bare rocks under the action of insolation and temperature change, detachment of grains from the rockwalls by wind, flow down of grains on the slope under the action of gravity, and accumulation of grains at the toe of the mountain, forming a deposit fan. The Wenchuan earthquake, which occurred in Sichuan on May 12, 2008, caused thousands of avalanches and landslides and left scars on slopes and a huge area of bare rocks. Grain erosion causes flying stones, injured humans and resulted in numerous slope debris flows. The process of grain erosion and strategies to limit the erosion were studied by field investigations and field experiments. According to these field investigations and field studies, the most serious grain erosion occurs in spring and early summer when it is very dry. Rocks are broken down to grains under the action of insolation and temperature change. Then, wind blows the grains from the bare rock down slope. Experimental results showed that the amount of grains blown down by wind per area of rock surface per unit time is proportional to the fourth power of the wind speed. However, the size of the grains blown down by wind increases linearly with the wind speed. An experiment proved that grain erosion can be controlled with two moss species. Moss spores were mixed with clay suspension and splashed on bare rocks. The moss species germinated on the rock surface in one month and greened the bare rocks in two months. The moss layer protected the rocks from insolation and mitigated the effects of temperature change, thus effectively mitigated grain erosion.

Spectral and stratigraphic mapping of hydrated sulfate and phyllosilicate‐bearing deposits in northern Sinus Meridiani, Mars

We present detailed stratigraphic and spectral analyses that focus on a region in northern Sinus Meridiani located between 1°N to 5°N latitude and 3°W to 1°E longitude. Several stratigraphically distinct units are defined and mapped using morphologic expression, spectral properties, and superposition relationships. Previously unreported exposures of hydrated sulfates and Fe/Mg smectites are identified using MRO CRISM and MEX OMEGA near‐infrared (1.0 to 2.5 μm) spectral reflectance observations. Layered deposits with monohydrated and polyhydrated sulfate spectral signatures that occur in association with a northeast‐southwest trending valley are reexamined using high‐resolution CRISM, HiRISE, and CTX images. Layers that are spectrally dominated by monohydrated and polyhydrated sulfates are intercalated. The observed compositional layering implies that multiple wetting events, brine recharge, or fluctuations in evaporation rate occurred. We infer that these hydrated sulfate‐bearing layers were unconformably deposited following the extensive erosion of preexisting layered sedimentary rocks and may postdate the formation of the sulfate‐ and hematite‐bearing unit analyzed by the MER Opportunity rover. Therefore, at least two episodes of deposition separated by an unconformity occurred. Fe/Mg phyllosilicates are detected in units that predate the sulfate‐ and hematite‐bearing unit. The presence of Fe/Mg smectite in older units indicates that the relatively low pH formation conditions inferred for the younger sulfate‐ and hematite‐bearing unit are not representative of the aqueous geochemical environment that prevailed during the formation and alteration of earlier materials. Sedimentary deposits indicative of a complex aqueous history that evolved over time are preserved in Sinus Meridiani, Mars.

Performance of a Beach Dewatering System—Chiaiolella Beach, Procida Island, Italy

Chiaiolella Beach is a 1.5-km-long pocket beach located on Procida Island (Italy). The beach is formed by medium sand generated by erosion of vulcanoclastic rocks that form cliffs around the island and at the backshore of the study site. A beach dewatering system was installed in April 2002 to provide a wider beach for users and to prevent cliff undercutting during storms. It has not been operative since December 2004, as local authorities decided to undertake cliff stabilization measures. Surveys carried out immediately before (October 2001) and 1 year after installation (October 2002) showed negligible volumetric change on the drained beach in Ciraccio (−0.52 m3/m), the NNE sector of Chiaiolella Beach, whereas on the undrained control section there was an accumulation of 1.41 m3/m. Since no long-term monitoring of beach profiles was available at the site previous to installation, to obtain an indication of the nearshore hydrodynamics and morphodynamics in absence of the drain, historical shoreline from high-resolution georeferenced aerial photography and numerical model were used. Overall, no evident positive effects of the dewatering system were confirmed, at least for mild wave energy levels. For higher wave energies, e.g., during a storm that occurred in December 2002, part of the beach (SSW sector, Ciracciello) had consistent volume losses and the dewatering system was not able to compensate them, as at some stage it was even damaged. This study points out the inadequacy of the dewatering system as coastal protection under high wave conditions.

Detecção de quartzo e argilominerais para o monitoramento de degradação de terras a partir de dados do infravermelho termal do sensor aster

Neste trabalho foram utilizados dados do Infravermelho Termal (TIR, bandas 10 a 14 - 8,125-10,95µm) do sensor ASTER (Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer) para o mapeamento de quartzo e argilominerais em áreas de degradação de terras na região sudoeste do Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil. Esta região apresenta um processo específico de degradação denominado arenização, o qual esta relacionado ao retrabalhamento de depósitos areníticos e a formação de solos arenosos. Esse tipo de processo apresenta uma série de problemas ambientais tais como aumento de erosão, redução da fertilidade do solo e diminuição de terras agricultaveis. Através do uso dos dados ASTER/TIR foi possível reproduzir importantes feições espectrais diagnosticas relacionadas às ligações SiO (banda reststrahlen) de argilominerais e do quartzo. O mapeamento da abundância de minerais foi realizado utilizando índices espectrais e razões de bandas. Os resultados mostram que os dados ASTER/TIR foram capazes de detectar e determinar os níveis de mistura entre grupos de argilominerais, quartzo e outros tipos de cobertura da terra. Áreas simultaneamente mapeadas como contendo grande quantidade de quartzo e pobres em argilominerais correspondem a solos eminentemente arenosos, vegetação escassa e drenagem excessiva, o que indica uma massiva perda de nutrientes no solo. Dessa forma, esta abordagem permite a geração de mapas quantitativos mais precisos sobre a degradação de terras, com importantes implicações nos estudos da dinâmica de ambientes tropicais.

Long-term variations of water quality of the Selenga and Kiran rivers at the Russian-Mongolian boundary

Principal-Component Method is used to identify the major factors governing the long-term variations of water chemistry in the transboundary rivers of Selenga and Kiran. Their preliminary interpretation was made. Water chemistry formation in both large (Selenga) and small (Kiran) rivers is shown to be mostly governed by natural-climatic factors. Thus, an increase in water abundance has a dual effect on water chemistry: on the one hand, water is enriched with substances increasingly entering it because of the more intense erosion and dissolution of solid rocks, and, on the other hand, the concentrations of chemicals of anthropogenic origin decrease because of their greater dilution. A conclusion was made regarding a relationship between a positive trend in water temperature and an increase in the concentration of chlorine ion in water. A preliminary estimate is given to the effect of municipal and industrial wastes, as well as surface and subsurface waters of various genesis on long-term variations of river water chemistry. Trends in changes in water chemistry were studied by using approximations of long-term series of the variables that determine the interpretation of principal factors with the help of a slow trend by “caterpillar” method.

Holocene sediments from the Southern Chile Trench: a record of active margin magmatism, tectonics and palaeoseismicity

Abstract: Sedimentology, petrography and the provenance of Holocene sediments from the Southern Chile Trench (36–47°S) were investigated in an integrated approach combining description of a collection of gravity cores, measurements of physical properties, quantitative X-ray petrography and modal analysis. The sediments studied were trench hemipelagic sediments, fan deposits, and more distal hemipelagic sediments from the Nazca Plate. The trench is mostly fed by multiple point sources via submarine canyons. Sandy turbidites show a southward increase in sediment maturity. Whereas volcanic lithic fragments and plagioclase represent the dominant fraction in the north, quartz content strongly increases in the southern part of the study area, in line with source lithologies. Further north, active volcanoes in the Main Cordillera represent almost the entire provenance signal as a result of a strong contribution of highly erodible volcanic rocks. Recurrence rates of sandy and silty turbidites in the trench fan sediments indicate a link to the palaeoseismic record on land. Our study documents the potential usefulness of proximal turbidites to reconstruct palaeoseismicity, even at a scale of single segments of the plate boundary.

Alluvial and volcanic pathways to silicified plant stems (Upper Carboniferous–Triassic) and their taphonomic and palaeoenvironmental meaning

Petrographic imaging, in combination with qualitative and quantitative instrumental analyses of mineral mass, allow us to obtain material signatures of silicified plant stems that are relatively common in sediments of continental basins since the late Palaeozoic. These fossils can be found in their original strata but commonly have been removed from their environmental and stratigraphic context, redeposited, and scattered on the recent land surface after erosion of the parent rocks. Analytical data gathered from X-ray diffraction analysis, hot cathodoluminescence (CL) imaging and spectroscopy, electron microprobe analysis, Raman spectrometry, and polarised light microscopy serve to characterise material signatures of samples from basins in Brazil, Germany, the Czech Republic, Sultanate of Oman, Mongolia, Antarctica, France, and the USA. This collection includes silicified Pennsylvanian and Permian plant taxa (and a few from the Triassic) found in fluvial environments and sites influenced by volcanism with the purpose to discern fundamental material characteristics formed under particular environmental circumstances. Late Pennsylvanian and Permian silicified stems in fluvial rocks include the presence of well-crystalline quartz (α-SiO 2), sometimes with a trace of kaolinite, showing weak CL (mostly blue or dark reddish), occasional mosaic or patchy preservation of anatomical details, and other signs of pressure distortion of wet trunks in fluvial deposits and subsequent diagenetic recrystallisation. The presumed silica source for the initial stage of silicification was weathering of labile minerals, mostly feldspars in the alluvium. In wood from aeolian deposits, moganite in combination with goethite was detected. Based on our results, we propose that the stems were silicified in sandy or gravelly fluvial deposits, most frequently in arkoses and arkosic sands, indicators of relatively warm climate with pronounced seasonal distribution of precipitation. Excluded from this interpretation are stems silicified primarily by volcanic material; these are distinguished by a higher species diversity, silicification close to the site of growth, miscellaneous mineralogy, usually with very colourful CL shades, and the presence of metastable forms of SiO 2, opal-CT or moganite. This volcanic influence on silicification mode is less clearly controlled by seasonality of precipitation or palaeoclimate itself.

Discussion of “Case Histories in Soil and Rock Erosion: Woodrow Wilson Bridge, Brazos River Meander, Normandy Cliffs, and New Orleans Levees” by Jean-Louis Briaud

Discussion of “Case Histories in Soil and Rock Erosion: Woodrow Wilson Bridge, Brazos River Meander, Normandy Cliffs, and New Orleans Levees” by Jean-Louis Briaud

Analysis and evaluation of the source of heavy metals in water of the River Changjiang

In order to analyze and evaluate different trace metals on surface water of the Changjiang River, concentrations of dissolved trace metals (Cu, Ni, Fe, Co, Sc, Al, Zn, Pb, Cd, Se, As, Cr, and Hg), major elements (Ca and Mg), and nutrient (NO3- were measured. Samples were taken at 76 positions along Changjiang River in flood and dry seasons during 2007-2008. Spatial distributions identified two main large zones mainly influenced by mineral erosion (sites 1-22) and anthropogenic action (sites 23-76), respectively. Principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical cluster analysis were used to identify the variance distinguishing the origin of water. Four significant components were extracted by PCA, explaining 74.91% of total variable. Cu, Ni, Fe, Co, Sc, Al, Ca, and Mg were mainly associated with the weathering and erosion of various rocks and minerals, while an anthropogenic source was identified for Cd and As. Although erosion was one source of Pb and Zn, they were also input by atmospheric deposition and industrial pollutions. NO3- and Se were mainly associated with agriculture activities. However, Hg and Cr showed different sources. CA confirmed and completed the results obtained by PCA, classifying the data into two large groups representing different areas. Group 1 referred to the upper reaches which represented samples mainly corresponding to natural background areas. Group 2 referred to the middle and lower reaches including samples under anthropogenic influence. Meanwhile, group 2 was subdivided into three new groups, representing agricultural, industrial, and various artificial pollution sources, respectively.

Sr–Nd–Os evidence for a stable erosion regime in the Himalaya during the past 12 Myr

Modern erosion of the Himalaya, the world's largest mountain range, transfers huge dissolved and particulate loads to the ocean. It plays an important role in the long-term global carbon cycle, mostly through enhanced organic carbon burial in the Bengal Fan. To understand the role of past Himalayan erosion, the influence of changing climate and tectonic on erosion must be determined. Here we use a 12 Myr sedimentary record from the distal Bengal Fan (Deep Sea Drilling Project Site 218) to reconstruct the Mio-Pliocene history of Himalayan erosion. We use carbon stable isotopes ( δ 13C) of bulk organic matter as paleo-environmental proxy and stratigraphic tool. Multi-isotopic — Sr, Nd and Os — data are used as proxies for the source of the sediments deposited in the Bengal Fan over time. δ 13C values of bulk organic matter shift dramatically towards less depleted values, revealing the widespread Late Miocene (ca. 7.4 Ma) expansion of C4 plants in the basin. Sr, Nd and Os isotopic compositions indicate a rather stable erosion pattern in the Himalaya range during the past 12 Myr. This supports the existence of a strong connection between the southern Tibetan plateau and the Bengal Fan. The tectonic evolution of the Himalaya range and Southern Tibet seems to have been unable to produce large re-organisation of the drainage system. Moreover, our data do not suggest a rapid change of the altitude of the southern Tibetan plateau during the past 12 Myr. Variations in Sr and Nd isotopic compositions around the late Miocene expansion of C4 plants are suggestive of a relative increase in the erosion of High Himalaya Crystalline rock (i.e. a simultaneous reduction of both Transhimalayan batholiths and Lesser Himalaya relative contributions). This could be related to an increase in aridity as suggested by the ecological and sedimentological changes at that time. A reversed trend in Sr and Nd isotopic compositions is observed at the Plio-Pleistocene transition that is likely related to higher precipitation and the development of glaciers in the Himalaya. These almost synchronous moderate changes in erosion pattern and climate changes during the late Miocene and at the Plio-Pleistocene transition support the notion of a dominant control of climate on Himalayan erosion during this time period. However, stable erosion regime during the Pleistocene is suggestive of a limited influence of the glacier development on Himalayan erosion.

Towards a volcanic–structural balance: relative importance of volcanism, folding, and remobilisation of nickel sulphides at the Perseverance Ni–Cu–(PGE) deposit, Western Australia

Perseverance is a world-class, komatiite-hosted nickel sulphide deposit situated in the well-endowed Leinster nickel camp of the Agnew–Wiluna greenstone belt, Western Australia. The mine stratigraphy at Perseverance trends north-northwest (NNW), dips steeply to the west, and is overturned. Stratigraphic footwall units lie along the western margin of the Perseverance Ultramafic Complex (PUC). The PUC comprises a basal nickel sulphide-bearing orthocumulate- to mesocumulate-textured komatiite that is overlain by a thicker, nickel sulphide-poor, dunite lens. Hanging wall rocks include rhyodacite that is texturally and compositionally similar to footwall volcanic rocks. These rocks separate the PUC from a second sequence of nickeliferous, E-facing, spinifex-textured komatiite units (i.e. the East Perseverance komatiite). Past workers argue for a conformable stratigraphic contact between the PUC and the East Perseverance komatiite and conclude that the PUC is extrusive. This study, however, clearly demonstrates that these komatiite sequences are discordant, implying that the PUC may have intruded rhyodacite country rock as a sill with subsequent structural juxtaposition against the East Perseverance komatiite. Early N–S shortening associated with the regional DI deformation event (corresponding to the local DP1 to DP3 events at Perseverance) resulted in the heterogeneous partitioning of strain along the margins of the competent dunite. A mylonite developed in the more ductile footwall rocks along the footwall margin of the PUC, while isoclinal F3 folds, such as the Hanging wall limb and Felsic Nose folds, formed in low-mean stress domains along the fringes of the elongated dunite lens. Strata-bound massive and disseminated nickel sulphides were passively fold thickened in hinge areas of isoclinal folds, whereas basal massive sulphides lubricated fold limbs and promoted thrust movement along shallowly dipping lithological contacts. Massive sulphides were physically remobilised up to 20 m from their primary footwall position into deposit-scale fold hinges to form the 1A and Felsic Nose orebodies. First-order controls on the geometry of the Perseverance deposit include the thermomechanical erosion of footwall rocks and the channelling of the mineralised komatiitic magma. Second- or third-order controls are several postvolcanic deformation events, which resulted in the progressive folding and shearing of the footwall contact, as well as the passive fold thickening of massive and disseminated sulphide orebodies. Massive sulphides were physically remobilised into multiple generations of fold hinges and shear zones. Important implications for near-mine exploration in the Leinster camp include identifying nickeliferous komatiite units, defining their three-dimensional geometry, and targeting fold hinge areas. Fold plunge directions and stretching lineations are indicators of potential plunge directions of massive sulphide orebodies.