Robot Anthropomorphism Research Articles

The future of artificial intelligence and digital development: a study of trust in social robot capabilities

ABSTRACT This paper aims to study people’s trust in the capabilities of social robots in the context of digital transformation. Firstly, the current application status of social robots is studied. Then, the capability trust problem of social robots is studied according to the existing problems and phenomena. Students from a municipal experimental middle school are selected for a questionnaire survey, and the anthropomorphism of social robots is taken as the independent variable. The role of social robots with different anthropomorphic degrees on students’ initial capability trust and the mediating role of attraction perception are studied. A research model is established, and SPSS 26.0 is used to further analyse the data. The results show that among the students with a low degree of an anthropomorphic social robot, the average score of anthropomorphism is 2.52, the average score of attraction perception is 3.29, and the score of capability trust is 3.64, which is the upper-middle level. There are significant differences in the initial capability trust evaluation of social robots among students of different ages (F = 38.13, P = 0.00). When the degree of anthropomorphism of social robots is at different levels, there are significant differences in students’ initial capability trust evaluation (F = 34.25, P = 0.00). It can be seen that the degree of anthropomorphism of social robots has an impact on students’ initial capability trust.

The negative effect of service robots’ affective human-likeness on consumer satisfaction in frontline service encounters

Although companies have widely deployed service robots with affective human-likeness, scant attention has been paid to their negative effects on consumer satisfaction. We adopt a consumer–robot relationship perspective to investigate the mechanism and boundary conditions of the negative influence of affective human-likeness on consumer satisfaction. We suggest that service robots with affective human-likeness may violate consumer–robot relationship norms, making consumers feel social discomfort, thereby negatively affecting their satisfaction. Study 1 shows that a high degree of affective human-likeness negatively affects consumer satisfaction by causing social discomfort. Study 2 finds that consumer power which affects the perception of social distance, can be the boundary condition for previous negative effects. This research makes contributes to the literature on service robot anthropomorphism, consumer–robot relationships, and consumer power in artificial intelligence marketing and can guide service robots’ anthropomorphic use.

The future is now? Consumers' paradoxical expectations of human-like service robots

The increasing adoption of human-like intelligent robots in various services has raised significant social and ethical concerns about their future implications. This study investigates how consumers' perceptions of the future development of anthropomorphic features in service robots influence their expectations and acceptance of this emerging technology. Focusing on human-like appearance and mind, we utilize the expectancy-value theory to propose a conceptual framework that delves into consumers' paradoxical expectations. Through a survey of 486 participants, we examine how these perceptions, combined with levels of technology anxiety, shape psychological expectations and subsequently impact the willingness to adopt service robots. Our findings highlight that consumers' perceptions and anxiety levels predict paradoxical expectations, which in turn influence acceptance. This study contributes by introducing a novel framework, exploring the human-like mind in robot anthropomorphism, and addressing the intricate interplay between consumers' perceptions and service robots.

Influence of robots service quality on customers' acceptance in restaurants

PurposeThis study aims to examine the impact of AI service robots on restaurant customers' engagement and acceptance and the moderating role of robot anthropomorphism on the relationship between AI robot service quality and customer engagement.Design/methodology/approachUsing a three-wave time-lagged design, 416 customers of service robots-enabled restaurants participated in the study. Mplus was used to examine the hypotheses.FindingsThe results confirmed that customers' perception regarding automation, personalization, efficiency and precision of robot service quality determine customer engagement, which further influences customer acceptance of AI service robots. Additionally, robot anthropomorphism moderates the relationships between AI robot service quality in terms of automation, personalization, efficiency and precision and customer engagement. This study confirms that AI service robots-customer engagement contributes to better acceptance of AI service robots.Practical implicationsThe proposed framework can be used as a diagnostic tool to enhance customer acceptance of AI service robots in restaurant settings. This research provides guidelines to restaurant owners to employ AI service robots in front-line services that provide better quality, ultimately enhancing customer engagement and acceptance.Originality/valueThis study fills the gap in the literature by investigating the influence of AI robot service quality on customer engagement and customer acceptance with the moderating effect of robot anthropomorphism in an emerging market context.

The effect of anthropomorphic competence-warmth congruence of service robots on recommendation intention

Service robots are becoming more popular as artificial intelligence technology advances. Based on the theory of mind perception, this study divides the anthropomorphism of service robots into two dimensions (competence and warmth) and discusses its impact on consumer psychology from the perspective of dual matching. First, anthropomorphism of service robots has positive effect on consumers’ attachment to robots. Second, consumer attachment to service robots increased when anthropomorphic competence and warmth were congruent. Third, consumer attachment to service robots mediated the relationship between anthropomorphic competence and warmth (in)congruence of service robots and consumer recommendation intention. Fourth, consumer paradox mindset moderated the effect of anthropomorphic competence and warmth (in)congruence of service robots on consumer attachment to service robots. These research conclusions have made important theoretical contributions and practical guidance for the research of anthropomorphic service robots and consumer attitudes.

Robot anthropomorphism and job insecurity: The role of social comparison

The rapid adoption of robots in workplaces has raised concerns among employees who view the robots as a potential threat to their job security. This study therefore aims to provide valuable insights into this psychologically and managerially important issue from a design perspective. In particular, this study examines how to alleviate employees’ concerns about job insecurity resulting from the adoption of robots. Across seven studies with different samples, we showed that the humanlike features of robots in the workplace increase employees’ perceived job insecurity, because these features increase their engagement in social comparison with robots. This research contributes to the literature on job insecurity, robot anthropomorphism, and social comparison. Moreover, this research provides important managerial implications for the design of robots in the workplace in light of employees’ job insecurity as a result of robots in the workplace.

How does service robot anthropomorphism affect human co-workers?

PurposeService robots are gradually becoming more anthropomorphic and intelligent. This research aims to investigate how anthropomorphic service robots with different levels of intelligence affect their human counterparts.Design/methodology/approachTwo between-subject experimental studies were used to test whether different levels of service robot anthropomorphism with different levels of intelligence influence employees' morale and resistance to service robots.FindingsStudy 1 shows that the effect of service robot anthropomorphism (low vs. high) on employees' resistance and morale is mediated by perceived job-security threat. Study 2 validates this mediating effect and shows that it is moderated by the type of AI (mechanical vs. analytical). Specifically, when exposed to mechanical AI-powered service robots, employees exhibit a higher perceived job-security threat toward robots with a high (vs. low) degree of anthropomorphism. This moderating effect is not observed when employees are exposed to analytical AI-powered service robots. This moderated mediation effect is also found for the signing of a petition as the behavioral outcome.Practical implicationsService firms considering the adoption of mechanical AI-powered service robots should choose a low (vs. high) anthropomorphic robot to reduce the sense of job-security threat felt by human employees, which subsequently increases their acceptance. However, if analytical AI-powered service robots with are to replace their human employees, the degree of anthropomorphism becomes irrelevant.Originality/valueThis is the first empirical study to explore how anthropomorphic service robots can influence human employees' evaluations and behaviors.

The effect of robot anthropomorphism on revisit intentions after service failure: a moderated serial mediation model

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to examine how robotic anthropomorphism and personalized design may affect consumers' reactions to brands after service failure.Design/methodology/approachThis study conducted two studies based on cognitive appraisal theory and artificial intelligence device acceptance theory. Study 1 explored the mechanisms by which the type of anthropomorphic design of the service robot (humanoid robot/nonhumanoid robot) influenced revisit intention after service failure through a one-factor between-subjects design based on a restaurant dining scenario. Study 2 was based on a hotel check-in scenario and explored the moderating effect of robot personalization design on the above mechanisms through a 2 (anthropomorphic design: humanoid robot/nonhumanoid robot) × 2 (personalized design: self-name/no name) between-subjects design.FindingsStudy 1 shows that consumers have higher performance expectations for nonhumanoid robots, leading to a higher tolerance for service failure, which in turn generates higher revisit intentions. Study 2 shows that consumers' performance expectations are significantly enhanced after custom naming of humanoid robots, so the serial mediation mechanism for the effect of robot anthropomorphic design on revisit intention does not hold.Originality/valueThis study extends the research of artificial intelligence device acceptance theory in the field of service failure and exploratively proposes an intervention mechanism for the negative effects of the anthropomorphic design of service robots.

Social Connectedness Promotes Robot Anthropomorphism

Anthropomorphism has traditionally been viewed as a means to compensate for a lack of social connection; therefore, social deficits are considered to facilitate anthropomorphism. In this research, we adopted an alternative growth-oriented perspective of anthropomorphism. We posited that anthropomorphism operates as a means to explore the social world, and thus hypothesized that social connectedness promotes robot anthropomorphism. To test this hypothesis, we conducted three studies (total N = 599) examining the effect of social connectedness on robot anthropomorphism. We found that social connectedness increased robot anthropomorphism. Importantly, genuine interest in social interactions with robots accounted for this effect. In addition, anthropomorphism elicited by social connectedness predicted more favorable attitudes toward robots. These findings enrich the current understanding of anthropomorphism and have practical implications.

What behavioral beliefs could robot-served hotels focus on to attract potential consumers?

Service robots could provide benefits for hotels in terms of productivity and even service quality. However, hotel managers in Spain (and Europe) have not implemented them as yet or are doing so only tentatively. This could be due to the fact that current literature is fragmented (i.e., dominated by hybrid models) and inconclusive and does not provide consistent guidelines for practitioners. This research narrows this gap by showing that a parsimonious application of the Theory of Planned Behavior is useful to predict attitude and buying intention toward robot-served hotels. Through an empirical analysis of 600 consumers in Spain, our findings indicate that hotel managers could focus on intrinsic motivations (enjoyment and challenge). They should also communicate the advantages of hybrid human–robot teams, in which the robots supplement humans instead of substituting them. The anthropomorphism of robots should not be emphasized as it seems to be perceived as a threat. Although utilitarian benefits matter, they seem to have a subordinate salience.

Partners or Opponents? How Mindset Shapes Consumers’ Attitude Toward Anthropomorphic Artificial Intelligence Service Robots

The use of artificial intelligence (AI) service robots is on the rise. With service frontlines gradually shifting to human–robot interactions, the question of whether the anthropomorphism of robots facilitates or constrains consumers’ experiences has emerged. This article focuses on the individual factor “consumer mindset” (competition vs collaboration) and investigates how it impacts consumers’ attitudes toward anthropomorphic AI robots during service delivery. Across three studies, we confirm our main prediction that competitive mindset consumers respond less favorably to anthropomorphic (vs. non-anthropomorphic) AI robots, whereas collaborative mindset consumers respond more favorably to anthropomorphic (vs. non-anthropomorphic) AI robots. We test the mediating role of perceived psychological closeness and the moderating role of interaction distance to explain the underlying mechanism. Our findings provide theoretical insights into the mixed results of previous studies of service robot anthropomorphism and have practical implications for service agencies using frontline robots.

Verbal anthropomorphism design of social robots: Investigating users’ privacy perception

Many studies on the anthropomorphism of social robots have revealed two aspects of anthropomorphism in human–robot interaction. The first is that humanlike robots have advantages of emotional, functional, and relational interaction with users, and the second is that they have disadvantages of privacy perception. Some researchers have claimed that there would be an optimal anthropomorphism of social robots balancing the two aspects. In this study, we explore the optimal level of verbal anthropomorphism of social robots through privacy perception. We designed social robots’ verbal anthropomorphism with various verbal style cues and conducted two studies related to physical and informational privacy based on three levels of verbal anthropomorphism: high, medium, and low. The results revealed that a medium-level verbal anthropomorphism was preferred by participants in terms of privacy perception, whereas they preferred a high-level verbal anthropomorphism in terms of emotional, functional, and relational aspects. This implies that the optimal level of verbal anthropomorphism of social robots may vary depending on privacy perceptions. Based on these findings, we propose adaptable verbal anthropomorphism design of social robots depending on conversation contexts. This paper offers directions to researchers and practitioners who want to design the verbal anthropomorphism of social robots.

Do lonely people seek robot companionship? A comparative examination of the Loneliness–Robot anthropomorphism link in the United States and China

Anthropomorphism can provide psychological closeness and compensate for loneliness; therefore, it has been assumed that lonely people are more likely to anthropomorphize robots and will exhibit preferences for anthropomorphic robots. However, to date, few robust studies have tested these intuitions. To fill this gap, we examined the link between loneliness and robot anthropomorphism. Across four cross-cultural studies (2 preregistered; N = 1590), we found counter-intuitive results. More specifically, lonely people were less likely to anthropomorphize robots (Study 1) and showed less preference for anthropomorphic robots (Study 2); these effects existed in Chinese but not American cultures. Further, observers rated consumers who purchased robots with high (versus low) levels of anthropomorphism as less lonely; this effect was more pronounced in Chinese culture than in American culture (Study 3). Further, a growth anthropomorphism orientation—beliefs that people anthropomorphize nonhuman agents out of sincere interest in these agents rather than to counteract loneliness—accounted for these cultural differences (Study 4). These findings enrich the current understanding of anthropomorphism from a cross-cultural perspective and have practical implications for robotic designs.

The Phenotypes of Anthropomorphism and the Link to Personality Traits

Facing robotic agents, we cannot help but ascribe them anthropomorphic characteristics. While this cognitive process has been extensively studied, numerous questions remain about how the tendency to anthropomorphize is related to individual differences and personality traits (i.e. phenotypes). Understanding what generates inter-individual differences is crucial since these differences can explain an important part of the representations and therefore behaviors towards robots. In two studies we aimed to evaluate the idea that anthropomorphism and appraisal of robots can be related to individual phenotypes. We also investigated the relationship between personality traits and anthropomorphic phenotypes. Our results support the idea that anthropomorphism can be considered a phenotype with clear individual differences in anthropomorphic tendencies based on a 2 × 2 anthropomorphism tendency/appraisal matrix.

Human–robot interactions in the restaurant setting: the role of social cognition, psychological ownership and anthropomorphism

Purpose The usage of robot waiters in the hospitality industry is growing, thus increasing the number of human–robot interactions in frontline services. Focusing on robot waiters in restaurants, this study aims to propose the social cognition (SC)–psychological ownership (PO)–customer responses (CR) model, while examining the association between SC, PO, robot anthropomorphism and CR. Design/methodology/approach The hypotheses of this study are tested using a three-step mixed-method approach that includes partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM), necessary condition analysis (NCA) and fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA). Findings PLS-SEM demonstrates the mediating role of psychological ownership on the relationship between SC, customer attitudes regarding being attended by a robot and revisiting intentions. Robot anthropomorphism enhances the relationship between SC and psychological ownership. NCA indicates that SC and psychological ownership are necessary conditions for the presence of favorable attitudes and revisiting intentions. FsQCA suggests that different configurations of the antecedent conditions lead to better attitudes and revisiting intentions. Practical implications Frontline hospitality robots need to be perceived as warm, competent, responsive and adaptable to customer requests to elicit positive responses. Managers should employ attractive robots displaying anthropomorphic features. Managers need to ensure that customers have some knowledge about robots before interacting with them. Managers should also consider customer heterogeneity and the context in which the robots will be deployed. Originality/value Based on the psychological ownership theory, this paper analyzes the relationship between SC, psychological ownership and CR. Anthropomorphism moderates the relationship between SC and psychological ownership.

Effects of service robots' anthropomorphism on consumers' attribution toward and forgiveness of service failure

AbstractWe investigated the effects of service robots' anthropomorphism on consumers' attribution and forgiveness of service failure. By manipulating the levels of anthropomorphism in service robots in three experiments, we evaluated the relationship norms and involvement levels of consumers. Three contributions of our study are as follows. First, most human–robot interaction studies have focused on consumers' dissatisfaction with service robots' service failures. Unfortunately, few studies have investigated the influence of service robots' anthropomorphism levels on consumers' internal attribution and forgiveness of service failure. In the present study, we found a positive correlation between the former and the latter. The findings of this study indicate marketing managers should design their service robots to be less anthropomorphic to reduce the likelihood of consumers making an internal attribution when a service failure occurs and increase their forgiveness of service failure. In addition, to reduce the likelihood of consumers' internal attribution upon service failure, managers may ensure that their service robots explain to the consumers the cause of service failure (e.g., inability to understand consumers' requirements and robots' design‐related limitations). Second, consumers' relationship norms moderate the effect of anthropomorphism level on internal attribution. Third, robot anthropomorphism is reportedly effective only when anthropomorphization occurs subconsciously.

Is it the best for barista robots to serve like humans? A multidimensional anthropomorphism perspective

The COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated the use of contactless service robots in hospitality industries. However, the key drivers of consumer behaviors against service robots have been ill-understood. This study examines the interactive relationships between the physical (visual features) and psychological (service autonomy) dimensions of service-robot anthropomorphism and their impacts on consumer acceptance of service robots. Adopting an experimental vignette method (EVM) with 402 participants, the study reveals that the impacts of visual features on consumers’ intention are affected by the level of service robots’ autonomy; particularly, consumers showed the highest intention when the robots have medium visual features and high autonomy while their intention became lower for the same level of visual features with low autonomy. Interestingly, consumers showed the lowest intention with high level visual features, regardless of the levels of autonomy. Our results also show that human identity threats and consumer resistance play a significant counterproductive mechanism between service robot anthropomorphism and consumers’ intention.

Going under Dr. Robot's knife: the effects of robot anthropomorphism and mortality salience on attitudes toward autonomous robot surgeons

Going under Dr. Robot's knife: the effects of robot anthropomorphism and mortality salience on attitudes toward autonomous robot surgeons

Going under Dr. Robot's knife: the effects of robot anthropomorphism and mortality salience on attitudes toward autonomous robot surgeons

Going under Dr. Robot's knife: the effects of robot anthropomorphism and mortality salience on attitudes toward autonomous robot surgeons

Going under Dr. Robot’s knife: the effects of robot anthropomorphism and mortality salience on attitudes toward autonomous robot surgeons

Objective This study sought to experimentally test two potential factors that could affect the consumer acceptance of autonomous robot surgeons: anthropomorphism and mortality salience. The study also investigated the effect of gender and its interaction with anthropomorphism on attitudes toward autonomous robot surgeons. Design and Main Outcome Measures A between-subjects experiment with a 2 (anthropomorphism: low vs. high) x 2 (mortality salience: no vs. yes) factorial design was conducted (N = 196). The trust in the autonomous surgical robot and the willingness to undergo autonomous robotic surgery served as the dependent variables. Results When death thoughts were not active, the human-likeness of the autonomous surgical robot significantly increased the trust in the robot and the willingness to undergo autonomous robotic surgery. Activating death thoughts did not further increase the positive attitudes toward the higher-anthropomorphic robot, while it significantly increased the trust in and the willingness to be operated on by the lower-anthropomorphic robot, rendering both robots comparable. This study also found that women had less positive attitudes toward the autonomous robot surgeon, regardless of the robot’s human-likeness. Conclusion Anthropomorphism and mortality salience can both positively affect the acceptance of autonomous robotic surgery but only in the absence of one another.