Robot Anthropomorphism Research Articles

Robot anthropomorphism at luxury hotels: a dual-congruity mechanism with luxury and task under anxiety

ABSTRACT Although service robots have been extensively studied recently, few empirical investigations have focused on the luxury setting. Targeting the setting of luxury hotels, in this study, expectation-confirmation theory and dual-congruity theory are combined to examine the impact of robot anthropomorphism on consumers’ expectations of service robots. The findings obtained from a sample of 556 respondents indicated that robot anthropomorphism increased consumers’ perceived social capability, performance expectancy, and perceived importance. Furthermore, luxury-technology fit and task-technology fit mediated the effects of social capability, performance expectancy, and perceived importance on the intention to use robotic services. Furthermore, the moderating role of anxiety toward robots in strengthening the effect of luxury-technology fit on the intention to use robotic services was revealed. The findings contribute to an enhanced understanding of consumer psychology in the context of advanced service technologies, offering valuable insights for the strategic implementation of service robots at luxury hotels.

Seeing Personhood in Machines: Conceptualizing Anthropomorphism of Social Robots

This study conceptualizes and develops a multi-dimensional Scale of Social Robot Anthropomorphism (SSRA). Through a rigorous scale development procedure that consists of a battery of qualitative (interviews and focus group) and quantitative approaches (online and field studies), four dimensions of social robot anthropomorphism are identified, namely, human-like appearance, social intelligence, emotional capacity, and self-understanding. The scale is found to be valid and reliable by testing its convergent, discriminant, and nomological validities, utilizing data collected from over 1,000 participants. The theoretical and managerial contributions are discussed, and future research recommendations are provided.

The Effect of Robot Anthropomorphism on Customers' Attention Activation and Satisfaction

ABSTRACTPrior research has predominantly focused on how interacting with anthropomorphic robots might affect customers' psychological processes and behaviors, wherein this stream of research has presented some inconsistent findings regarding its effectiveness in the service context. This research aims at taking a novel angle by illuminating on the arousal‐based reaction among customers, and their subsequent satisfaction. Grounded in selective attention theory, this research develops a model in which robot anthropomorphism activates customers' attention, which in turn cultivates heightened customer satisfaction. Findings across an eye‐tracking experiment (Study 1), a field survey study (Study 2), and a scenario‐based experiment (Study 3) converge to provide support to the hypotheses. The results of our mixed‐method approach shed new light on how robot anthropomorphism might impact customer satisfaction. Importantly, this study contributes to the research of service robot in the consumer psychology literature by disentangling an attention (arousal)‐based mechanism through which robot anthropomorphism might induce positive customer outcomes. Meanwhile, it simultaneously offers timely and crucial managerial implications for practitioners to better understand the underlying arousal‐based influences of digitalizing the service delivery among customers. This research ends with a discussion pertaining to its theoretical and practical implications.

Influence of robot anthropomorphism on consumer attitudes toward restaurants and service providers

We conducted this study to investigate the influence of robot anthropomorphism on consumers’ attitudes toward restaurants and service providers, focusing on the moderating effects of robot social roles and consumer autonomy. The results of Study 1 revealed that anthropomorphic robots fostered more positive attitudes toward restaurants and service robots than non-anthropomorphic robots when consumers viewed restaurant advertisements. The results of Study 2 revealed that consumers also exhibited more positive attitudes toward anthropomorphic robots compared to non-anthropomorphic robots when picturing restaurant dining experiences. Furthermore, when non-anthropomorphic robots were assigned partner roles and consumers were given the option to choose their servers, attitudes toward these robots improved. Collectively, these findings suggest that anthropomorphism in robots can lead to more positive attitudes, and the acceptance of non-anthropomorphic robots can be enhanced through greater consumer autonomy and the assignment of partner roles. These results provide insight into AI service marketing strategies.

Overtrust in AI Recommendations About Whether or Not to Kill: Evidence from Two Human-Robot Interaction Studies

This research explores prospective determinants of trust in the recommendations of artificial agents regarding decisions to kill, using a novel visual challenge paradigm simulating threat-identification (enemy combatants vs. civilians) under uncertainty. In Experiment 1, we compared trust in the advice of a physically embodied versus screen-mediated anthropomorphic robot, observing no effects of embodiment; in Experiment 2, we manipulated the relative anthropomorphism of virtual robots, observing modestly greater trust in the most anthropomorphic agent relative to the least. Across studies, when any version of the agent randomly disagreed, participants reversed their threat-identifications and decisions to kill in the majority of cases, substantially degrading their initial performance. Participants’ subjective confidence in their decisions tracked whether the agent (dis)agreed, while both decision-reversals and confidence were moderated by appraisals of the agent’s intelligence. The overall findings indicate a strong propensity to overtrust unreliable AI in life-or-death decisions made under uncertainty.

Viewing machines as humans but humans as machines? Social connectedness shapes the robot anthropomorphism-dehumanization link

Human interactions with social robots inevitably involve anthropomorphism. Concerns have arisen regarding whether robot anthropomorphism is accompanied by negative human relationships. In particular, limited empirical research suggests that the more humanness people attribute to nonhuman agents (e.g., social robots), the more they deny to humans, thus implying a positive association between robot anthropomorphism and dehumanization. From a motivational perspective, we examined whether social connectedness—the perception of closeness with others—may expand the scope of agents deserving to be treated as having humanness, thereby tempering the possible positive association between robot anthropomorphism and dehumanization. Across three studies (two preregistered) conducted with Chinese participants, we induced social connectedness and measured anthropomorphism of social robots and dehumanization of certain individuals. Robot anthropomorphism negatively predicted dehumanization on human nature traits and the mental capacity to feel among participants induced to feel social connectedness (but not social neutrality or disconnectedness). Although their generalizability across diverse cultures warrants further investigation, our findings offer novel theoretical insights into humanness attribution, and practical implications for promoting social cohesion in the era of intelligent machines.

Humanlike service robots: A systematic literature review and research agenda

AbstractHumanlike robots are increasingly employed to provide frontline services. They are frequently designed with stereotypically feminine or masculine humanlike features which affect or bias consumer behavior in service encounters. This systematic review of 118 peer‐reviewed journal papers aims to comprehensively capture the current status of the field and identify important research gaps requiring further investigation. Following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta‐Analyses protocol, a comprehensive framework is developed to conceptualize the process of customer interactions with humanlike service robots, depicting how humanlike service robots influence consumer behavior. Specifically, we identify interaction antecedents, consumer processing factors, outcomes of the interactions, and strengthening/attenuating factors. Based on the framework, the review concludes by identifying issues that future research should seek to solve to contribute to the field. This paper provides a deep understanding of service robot anthropomorphism in marketing and consumer research and proposes a future research agenda to advance knowledge of the field.

How does the anthropomorphism of service robots impact employees’ role service behavior in the workplace?

The rapid adoption of service robots has altered employees’ role boundaries and tasks. Anthropomorphism plays a key role in understanding human responses to robots. However, empirical research on how anthropomorphism influences employees’ cognitive and behavioral responses is lacking. Based on the transactional model of stress and coping, this study builds a conceptual model to reveal how the anthropomorphism of service robots affects employees’ service behavior. An analysis of 295 valid questionnaire responses shows that the anthropomorphism of service robots affects employees’ service behavior through warmth and smart technology, artificial intelligence, robotics, and algorithms (STARA) awareness. Further, a competitive psychological climate strengthens the impact of the anthropomorphism of service robots on STARA awareness and weakens its effect on warmth.

How the Degree of Anthropomorphism of Human-like Robots Affects Users' Perceptual and Emotional Processing: Evidence from an EEG Study.

Anthropomorphized robots are increasingly integrated into human social life, playing vital roles across various fields. This study aimed to elucidate the neural dynamics underlying users' perceptual and emotional responses to robots with varying levels of anthropomorphism. We investigated event-related potentials (ERPs) and event-related spectral perturbations (ERSPs) elicited while participants viewed, perceived, and rated the affection of robots with low (L-AR), medium (M-AR), and high (H-AR) levels of anthropomorphism. EEG data were recorded from 42 participants. Results revealed that H-AR induced a more negative N1 and increased frontal theta power, but decreased P2 in early time windows. Conversely, M-AR and L-AR elicited larger P2 compared to H-AR. In later time windows, M-AR generated greater late positive potential (LPP) and enhanced parietal-occipital theta oscillations than H-AR and L-AR. These findings suggest distinct neural processing phases: early feature detection and selective attention allocation, followed by later affective appraisal. Early detection of facial form and animacy, with P2 reflecting higher-order visual processing, appeared to correlate with anthropomorphism levels. This research advances the understanding of emotional processing in anthropomorphic robot design and provides valuable insights for robot designers and manufacturers regarding emotional and feature design, evaluation, and promotion of anthropomorphic robots.

Barista robots with human appeal: Unraveling the impact of anthropomorphism, human presence, and perceived financial constraints on consumer behavior

While consumer acceptance of anthropomorphized robots has gained significant attention, limited research has examined the effectiveness of anthropomorphizing robots from a social cognitive perspective. This paper delves into the specific conditions and individual characteristics where the anthropomorphism strategy is most effective. Specifically, Studies 1 and 2 explore the moderating roles of human staff presence and consumers’ perceived financial constraints on the robot anthropomorphism effect on consumer visit intention. Both studies employ multiple regression analyses. The findings reveal that the robot anthropomorphism effect on consumer visit intention is more pronounced when a human staff is deployed alongside a robot (Study 1) and for consumers with higher levels of perceived financial constraints (Study 2). Moreover, perceived humanness and effort of service robots explain the underlying mechanism. Managerially, anthropomorphized robots are recommended especially for operations where human staff is present and for budget-friendly businesses that cater to consumers experiencing financial constraints.

Enhancing service adaptability: a moderated mediation model of workplace ostracism, robot anthropomorphism, employees’ readiness to change, and performance efficacy

Enhancing service adaptability: a moderated mediation model of workplace ostracism, robot anthropomorphism, employees’ readiness to change, and performance efficacy

How Does Children’s Anthropomorphism of a Social Robot Develop Over Time? A Six-Wave Panel Study

Research on children’s anthropomorphism of social robots is mostly cross-sectional and based on a single measurement. However, because social robots are new type of technology with which children have little experience, children’s initial responses to social robots may be biased by a novelty effect. Accordingly, a single measurement of anthropomorphism may not accurately reflect how children anthropomorphize social robots over time. Thus, we used data from a six-wave panel study to investigate longitudinal changes in 8- to 9-year-old children’s anthropomorphism of a social robot. Latent class growth analyses revealed that anthropomorphism peaked after the first interaction with the social robot, remained stable for a brief period of time, and then decreased. Moreover, two distinct longitudinal trajectories of anthropomorphism could be identified: one with moderate to high anthropomorphism and one with low to moderate anthropomorphism. Previous media exposure to non-fictional robots increased the probability that children experienced higher levels of anthropomorphism.

Children's anthropomorphism of inanimate agents.

This review article examines the extant literature on animism and anthropomorphism in infants and young children. A substantial body of work indicates that both infants and young children have a broad concept of what constitutes a sentient agent and react to inanimate objects as they do to people in the same context. The literature has also revealed a developmental pattern in which anthropomorphism decreases with age, but social robots appear to be an exception to this pattern. Additionally, the review shows that children attribute psychological properties to social robots less so than people but still anthropomorphize them. Importantly, some research suggests that anthropomorphism of social robots is dependent upon their morphology and human-like behaviors. The extent to which children anthropomorphize robots is dependent on their exposure to them and the presence of human-like features. Based on the existing literature, we conclude that in infancy, a large range of inanimate objects (e.g., boxes, geometric figures) that display animate motion patterns trigger the same behaviors observed in child-adult interactions, suggesting some implicit form of anthropomorphism. The review concludes that additional research is needed to understand what infants and children judge as social agents and how the perception of inanimate agents changes over the lifespan. As exposure to robots and virtual assistants increases, future research must focus on better understanding the full impact that regular interactions with such partners will have on children's anthropomorphizing. This article is categorized under: Psychology > Learning Cognitive Biology > Cognitive Development Computer Science and Robotics > Robotics.

A Study of the Impact of Artificial Intelligent Services on the Remediation of Business Management Service Failures

Abstract Accompanied by the continuous development of Internet information technology and the promotion of technologies such as big data, artificial intelligence, and machine learning, AI-enabled services are gradually integrated into daily life, and remediation in the face of AI service interactions has also become an inevitable research issue. This study examines the impact of remediation in the event of service failures, particularly in the context of intelligent robot service failures that lead to negative customer experiences. Through the dissection of service failure remediation methods, combined with the customer satisfaction index model, a theoretical research model is constructed from the two aspects of willingness to use and satisfaction, and five hypotheses of remediation are proposed, and then experiments are designed to test them. The results of regression analysis indicated that the mean values of perception and willingness to use in the low anthropomorphism group were 4.875 and 5.052. The mean values of perception and willingness to use in the high anthropomorphism group were increased by 0.718 and 0.649 compared to those of the low anthropomorphism group. The customer’s satisfaction in terms of robot anthropomorphism in the high anthropomorphism was 4.055, and in the low anthropomorphism was 3.410, which indicated that there were positive correlations between the degree of anthropomorphism and both willingness to use and satisfaction have a positive effect, and all five hypotheses of this paper are proved. The purpose of this study is to provide an in-depth analysis of the use of AI anthropomorphization in service failure and service remediation and to offer guidance and references for AI services and related development and design decisions.

Trust in service robot: the role of appearance anthropomorphism

ABSTRACT An increasing number of hotels and restaurants are using service robots as front-line employees, yet the lack of consumer trust in service robots affects the service experience. To enhance trust, companies have added anthropomorphism designs for service robots. This study investigated the effects of service robot anthropomorphism on trust and psychological mechanisms of trust in service robot. This study conducted three scenario-based experiments to explore the mechanisms of the service robot appearance anthropomorphism effect on trust. The results show that consumers are more likely to trust service robots with a higher degree of appearance anthropomorphism. The anthropomorphism appearance of service robots affects consumers’ perceived interpersonal attraction, including physical attraction, task attraction and social attraction, which in turn affects trust. In addition, consumers’ technology readiness moderates the effect of service robot anthropomorphism on interpersonal attraction. This paper develops research on consumer trust in service robots, and provides guidance for marketing practices of service robots.

Service robot anthropomorphism on consumer usage intention: curvilinear and linear effect

PurposeThis research proposes and examines a theoretical model grounded in anthropomorphism theory considering the curvilinear and linear relationships between service robot anthropomorphism and consumer usage intention and explores the mediating effect of perceived risk.Design/methodology/approachTo examine the developed model, two complementary studies are designed. In Study 1, multi-time data of 511 participants show that service robot anthropomorphism inverts U-shaped (curvilinear) relationship on consumer usage intention and perceived risk mediates this curvilinear relationship. In Study 2, multi-source data of 460 volunteers are used to confirm the findings of Study 1 and examine that consumer empathy moderates the complex nonlinear effect of service robot anthropomorphism on perceived risk, and the indirect curvilinear effect of service robot anthropomorphism on consumer usage intention through perceived risk.FindingsThis research provides preliminary and yet important findings on how service robot anthropomorphism most likely is positively associated with consumer usage intention, i.e. the positively influence mechanism of service robot anthropomorphism on consumer usage intention.Originality/valueThis research provides preliminary and yet important findings on how service robot anthropomorphism most likely is positively associated with consumer usage intention, i.e. the positively influence mechanism of service robot anthropomorphism on consumer usage intention.

Service robots and hotel guests’ perceptions: anthropomorphism and stereotypes

Diseño/metodología/enfoqueSe recopiló datos válidos de un total de 524 clientes de hoteles chinos mediante una encuesta en línea. Los datos fueron analizados mediante un modelo de ecuaciones estructurales.ObjetivoBasándose en el antropomorfismo y en el modelo de contenido estereotipado, este estudio explora el impacto del antropomorfismo de los robots en el boca a boca de los clientes del hotel y en la intención de uso continuado a través de la calidez y la competencia percibidas. El estudio investiga también los efectos moderadores de la experiencia de los huéspedes.ConclusionesLos resultados indican que el antropomorfismo del robot afecta positivamente a la calidez y a la competencia percibidas. La calidez percibida influye positivamente en el boca a boca y en la intención de uso continuado de los huéspedes, mientras que la competencia percibida sólo influye positivamente en la intención de uso continuado de los huéspedes. Los resultados muestran, además, que la experiencia del cliente debilita la relación positiva entre el antropomorfismo del robot y la percepción de calidez y de competencia.Originalidad/valorEste estudio supone un avance en la literatura sobre robots de servicio al integrar el modelo de contenido estereotipado con el antropomorfismo de los robots, en la exploración de las percepciones de los huéspedes de hoteles sobre los robots de servicio. Este estudio también muestra el papel vital que desempeñan las características de los huéspedes en la interacción humano-robot. El estudio proporciona información valiosa para que los hoteleros diseñen y adopten mejores robots para ofrecer experiencias óptimas a los huéspedes.

Robot occupations affect the categorization border between human and robot faces

The Uncanny Valley hypothesis implies that people perceive a subjective border between human and robot faces. The robot–human border refers to the level of human-like features that distinguishes humans from robots. However, whether people’s perceived anthropomorphism and robot–human borders are consistent across different robot occupations remains to be explored. This study examined the robot–human border by analyzing the human photo proportion represented by the point of subjective equality in three image classification tasks. Stimulus images were generated by morphing a robot face photo and one each of four human photos in systematically changed proportions. Participants classified these morphed images in three different robot occupational conditions to explore the effect of changing robot jobs on the robot–human border. The results indicated that robot occupation and participant age and gender influenced people’s perceived anthropomorphism of robots. These can be explained by the implicit link between robot job and appearance, especially in a stereotyped context. The study suggests that giving an expected appearance to a robot may reproduce and strengthen a stereotype that associates a certain appearance with a certain job.

The influence of robot anthropomorphism and perceived intelligence on hotel guests’ continuance usage intention

The influence of robot anthropomorphism and perceived intelligence on hotel guests’ continuance usage intention

Social robots: Partner or intruder in the home? The roles of self-construal, social support, and relationship intrusion in consumer preference

With AI and social robotics advancements, social robots such as Cozmo will become increasingly prevalent in homes. Previous studies have indicated that the anthropomorphic appearance of robots can elicit both favorable and unfavorable responses from consumers. However, the factors that moderate such responses are not well-understood. Therefore, the present research proposes that self-construal, an untapped topic, is a moderator. Long-term, frequent, and private interactions between consumers and social robots at home may result in consumers developing relationships with robots based on the trade-off between benefits and (psychological) costs. Through examining social support benefits and relational intrusion costs, three experiments and one text analysis demonstrate that independent (interdependent) self-construals prefer humanoid (mechanoid) over mechanoid (humanoid) SHRs due to the anticipation of net interaction benefits. This research contributes to the knowledge of the contradictory findings regarding highly anthropomorphic robots, explicitly enhancing the understanding of human-robot interaction, the “uncanny valley,” robot anthropomorphism, and social robotics. Moreover, this research offers a practical design approach to SHRs from a managerial perspective.