Road Initiative Research Articles

BEYOND RHETORIC: CHINA'S PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN KENYA THROUGH A POLITICAL-ECONOMIC LENS (2013-2020)

This article explores the evolution of China-Kenya relations within the context of China's broader public diplomacy strategy, focusing particularly on the period from 2013 to 2020. The foundation for these bilateral relations was laid as China opened up to developing countries and African nations gained independence. While formal diplomatic relations between China and Kenya were established in 1963, it was during the 2000s that these relations diversified significantly under the leadership of Chinese President Hu Jintao and Kenyan President Mwai Kibaki. This diversification spanned commercial, cultural, and political domains, becoming a notable example of public diplomacy. With the ascension of Chinese President Xi Jinping, China's public diplomacy experienced a strategic shift towards a more assertive and politically oriented approach. This study argues that under Xi Jinping, new initiatives and strategic plans were introduced, enhancing the existing framework of China's public diplomacy. A key element of this transformation was the increased emphasis on foreign aid, which gained momentum through the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Between 2013 and 2020, China's foreign aid to Kenya played a pivotal role in reshaping the structure of Chinese public diplomacy. This period saw a continuation and expansion of activities in culture and media, established in earlier phases, alongside a growing focus on infrastructure development, humanitarian aid, healthcare assistance, and educational and cultural projects. The study begins by examining traditional public diplomacy tools such as cultural exchanges, high-level visits, and educational initiatives. It then discusses specific projects implemented between 2013 and 2020, analyzing their contributions to public diplomacy efforts. Finally, the article provides an overview of these projects, as documented in AidData, highlighting their impact on the bilateral relations between China and Kenya.

Kazakhstan’s Anti-China Protests: Implications for the Belt and Road Initiative in Central Asia

This article examines China’s increasing investments in Kazakhstan amid its declining soft power and growing public dissent. Focusing on Kazakhstan's strategic position within the Belt and Road Initiative, it analyzes how Chinese economic influence persists despite widespread protests and negative public opinion. Using a qualitative approach, the study synthesizes academic literature, policy analyses, news reports, and firsthand accounts to understand local views on Chinese influence. Findings show that while China’s economic power supports continued investment, the lack of soft power presents long-term risks. Without efforts to improve its image and build trust, China’s reliance on hard power may fuel anti-China sentiments, potentially leading to organized resistance and policy changes in Kazakhstan. The study emphasizes that China must incorporate soft power elements into its foreign policy to sustain influence in Kazakhstan and across Central Asia.

Hong Kong professional services and the belt and road initiative: Challenges for co‐evolving sustainability. By Li, L. C., Mo, P. L. L. (Eds.), Milton: Taylor & Francis. 2023. pp. 1‐266 ISBN: 9780367747367

Hong Kong professional services and the belt and road initiative: Challenges for co‐evolving sustainability. By Li, L. C., Mo, P. L. L. (Eds.), Milton: Taylor & Francis. 2023. pp. 1‐266 ISBN: 9780367747367

AI for Sustainable Development in the Belt and Road Countries - Need for Capacity Building

All United Nations member countries are striving to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), with information and communication technologies (ICTs) playing a crucial role in accelerating the progress. However, there is a significant disparity in technological capacities between the least developed, developing, and developed nations. Leading countries maintain dominance in these technologies, creating a digital divide that redefines richness and poverty. The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), launched by China in 2013, offers a beacon of hope for developing nations. Over the past decade, China has introduced the Global Development Initiative (GDI), Global Security Initiative (GSI), and Global Civilizations Initiative (GCI) under BRI, benefiting many developing countries. Despite these advancements, many BRI member countries lack the capacity to fully utilize these technologies and maintain the infrastructure so developed by China. There is an urgent need for education and capacity building to ensure these nations can leverage AI and ICTs for sustainable development. Artificial Intelligence (AI) is transforming education by offering personalized learning experiences, optimizing administrative processes, and facilitating data-driven decision-making. AI-powered educational tools can adapt to individual student needs, enhancing engagement and learning outcomes. However, transitioning from traditional to technology-driven education systems requires robust capacity-building efforts to equip educators and institutions with the necessary skills and knowledge. Collaboration between governments, academia, industry, and civil society is essential for driving innovation and integrating AI responsibly and inclusively in education. This paper highlights the need for capacity building, particularly for students at all educational levels, to prepare them for future challenges and to achieve the SDGs through AI and technology-driven education.

The Impact of the Belt and Road Initiative on the Economic Development of the Countries Participating in the Initiative

The Impact of the Belt and Road Initiative on the Economic Development of the Countries Participating in the Initiative

Study on the Approaches to International Tax Dispute Resolution under the Belt and Road Initiative

Study on the Approaches to International Tax Dispute Resolution under the Belt and Road Initiative

Infrastructure collaboration along China’s Belt and Road Initiative: Implications for corporate social responsibility and political activity

Chinese multinational enterprises (MNEs) have increasingly engaged in outward foreign direct investment in recent years, and particularly into the infrastructure sector of developing economies. This has been prompted by the infrastructure-led economic integration plan of China’s Belt and Road Initiative. However, such collaboration faces many challenges. Infrastructure projects are often undertaken in industries, countries, and regions posing particular and difficult challenges, and with divergent, often conflicting interests, with the ensuing conclusion that the MNE is simply exploiting the project and not delivering value to the host country. Overall, not only does the infrastructure project have to be well-functioning with expected returns (or savings) realized, but these projects face close scrutiny from local communities, labor, opposition parties, neighboring countries, and various international bodies and nonprofits, requiring delicate handling of the principals involved. The unfolding of these issues and their management by the multinational are examined through an in-depth longitudinal case study. The data are drawn from major participants and stakeholders around a leading Chinese MNE and the mega project of the construction of a major hydropower plant in Pakistan.

Effective or symbolic? A retrospective look at the performance of the China International Commercial Court

ABSTRACT In recent years, numerous international commercial courts have been established to align dispute resolution mechanisms with the needs of international commerce. In June 2018, China entered this arena with the creation of the China International Commercial Court (CICC), a court specifically designed to facilitate international commercial dispute resolution and, in particular, solve disputes emerging from the One Belt One Road Initiative (BRI). However, the CICC has been less innovative than other international commercial courts. It has limited jurisdiction and relatively few international and arbitration-like features. Against this background, at the time of its creation, significant questions arose regarding the role the CICC would play within the dispute resolution market. This article considers the performance of the CICC over its first five years and empirically evaluates its performance compared to other commercial courts. An examination of the number of cases and their characteristics reveals that the international appeal of the CICC as a dispute resolution venue has been limited. Nevertheless, this article argues that the CICC can play a role in bolstering the ability of the Chinese legal system to address foreign-related disputes – namely, by producing guiding case law for situations that may come before the lower courts and by providing an institutional model that can be replicated at lower levels of the Chinese court structure.

Prejudice toward the Xinyimin in Indonesia: testing the integrated threat model

ABSTRACT China’s Belt and Road Initiative has galvanized new Chinese migration to Southeast Asia, including Indonesia. The presence of the new Chinese migrants (Xinyimin) has not gone without resistance in Indonesia. This study examines the effects of history of intergroup conflicts and contact on the formation of threat perceptions toward the Xinyimin in Indonesia. The findings revealed both history of conflicts and contact predict realistic threat and highlight the importance of open communication in mitigating intergroup biases.

Renewable energy transition and regional integration: Energizing the pathway to sustainable development

This study examines the influence of renewable energy transition on sustainable development, with multi-dimensional regional integration as a moderator. Using various regression techniques, a balanced panel dataset was analyzed for 64 countries participating in the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and three sub-regions (Asia, Europe, and Middle East-Africa) from 2005 to 2020. The findings reveal a positive relationship between renewable energy transition and sustainable development across the full panel and sub-regions of the BRI. Multi-dimensional regional integration also positively influences sustainable development. The interaction of regional integration with renewable energy transitions positively moderates sustainable development in Asia and Europe but negatively in the Middle East-African economies. Macroeconomic conditions, institutional quality, and population size positively affect sustainable development for the full panel, with mixed effects in sub-regions. Conversely, government consumption negatively impacts sustainable development for both the full and regional panels of the BRI. This study underscores important policy implications for promoting a balanced transition from conventional energy sources to renewables, thereby fostering green economic growth, environmental sustainability, and social inclusion.

International higher education as knowledge diplomacy: The role of Chinese universities in China’s belt and road initiative

As an important player in China’s international relations, Chinese universities have been actively involved in China’s international development projects along China’s “Belt and Road Initiative (BRI)” routes. In this study, three Chinese universities are invited to share their collaborative education projects with three developing regions of the world: Central Asia, South East Asia and Africa. Using knowledge diplomacy as a theoretical lens to examine the three cases, this study aims to describe and evaluate the role of Chinese universities in the BRI programs in meeting the urgent talent needs of key infrastructure and energy industries in the global south. Through these three cases, the study also aims to shed light on China’s economic goals in international education that are currently absent in policy documents and academic literature.

China-Malaysia Relations and the Belt and Road Initiative: An analysis based on Constructivist Theory

China-Malaysia relations have a long history. At present, benefiting from the solid foundation laid by China and Malaysia, the Belt and Road Initiative has achieved remarkable results, from which both countries have gained. Starting from the background of the Belt and Road Initiative, this paper explores the development of China-Malaysia relations through the view of constructivist theory by reviewing and analysing cases of cooperation outcomes between China and Malaysia in the fields of politics, economy, and culture, and finds that cultural exchanges are indispensable to the advancement of the bilateral relationship between China and Malaysia.

Analyzing the Influence of International Remittances on Multidimensional Poverty: Insights from BRI Countries

ABSTRACT Efforts to facilitate international remittances hold substantial potential to impact various dimensions of poverty, underscoring the importance of comprehending this relationship in developing economies. International remittances between Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) countries have shown a marked growth trajectory. Unlike other studies that focus on the impact of remittances on income-based poverty in developing countries, this research delves into a more comprehensive analysis of how remittances affect various facets of poverty. Therefore, this paper aims to estimate the broader global implications of international remittances on multidimensional poverty in selected BRI countries. This study applied Driscoll-Kraay and Fully Modified Ordinary Least Square estimators to evaluate international remittances’ impact on MPI in BRI countries between 2010 and 2022. The results reflected a significant effect on countries that have contributed to the Belt and Road Initiative, with its impact on MPI courtesy of political stability, international remittances, agricultural growth, and forest plantation. Besides, the results of the Granger causality indicated a bi-directional causal link between forest plantation and MPI and a uni-directional causal link between MPI and international remittance. Countries along the BRI should enact policies to attract more remittances and design strategies to reduce unemployment and poverty.

A review of railway transportation in Central Asia for corridors and the revival of the Great Silk Road

This review examines the state of railway transportation in Central Asia within the context of the Silk Road initiative, tracing its origins from the United States' New Silk Road strategy. Despite recent setbacks, the Silk Route has become a crucial geopolitical tool for military, political, and economic interests, with corridors like Kazakhstan's Terminal and the China-Kyrgyzstan-Uzbekistan-Afghanistan route identified for potential revitalization. Uzbekistan, particularly in the China-Kyrgyzstan-Uzbekistan corridor, emerges as pivotal for advancing the Silk Road initiative. A comprehensive analysis of data collection methodologies employed in studying these corridors is also included to ensure the reliability and validity of the findings. Employing a multifaceted methodology, including quantitative analysis of infrastructure metrics, case studies of specific projects, a literature review synthesizing existing knowledge, and comparative analysis drawing parallels and contrasts, this study explores opportunities and challenges in enhancing these corridors, aiming to contribute to the broader strategy's rejuvenation in Central Asia. By analyzing current conditions and proposing improvements, the research seeks to optimize railway transport, aligning with the Silk Road's historical significance in the contemporary geopolitical landscape.

CHINESE YUAN EXCHANGE RATE AGAINST THE INDONESIAN RUPIAH PREDICTION USING SUPPORT VECTOR REGRESSION

This study aims to forecast the exchange rate between the Chinese Yuan (CNY) and the Indonesian Rupiah (IDR) using Support Vector Regression (SVR), a machine-learning technique that can handle nonlinear and complex data. The authors utilize the monthly selling exchange rate of CNY against IDR from January 2012 to October 2023 sourced from the “investing” platform. The optimal SVR model is obtained by splitting the data into 113 training samples and 28 testing samples and using the Radial Basis Function (RBF) kernel. The model achieves high accuracy, with a Mean Absolute Percentage Error (MAPE) of 1.738%, a Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE) of 50.661 for the training data and a MAPE of 2.516%, and an RMSE of 64.735 for the testing data. The results of this paper can provide valuable insights for policymakers, investors, and traders who are interested in the CNY/IDR exchange rate dynamics and the economic implications of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). The study aligns with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), specifically SDG 8, aiming to promote sustained, inclusive, and sustainable economic growth.

Based on ideology theory: a corpus-oriented analysis of the UK traditional media coverage of China's belt and road initiative

ABSTRACT This article examines the depiction of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in elite English media across Europe to discern sentiments and ideological disparities between China and the Western world. Using the PRISMA method, 1826 relevant research articles on the BRI were identified, and 42 were selected for detailed analysis. Additionally, 1357 news articles from the Financial Times, The Guardian and BBC from 2015 to 2023 underwent linguistic corpus analysis. Employing a three-dimensional critical discourse analysis (3d-CDA), the study scrutinized sample news articles, revealing ideological underpinnings across various dimensions and frames. The analysis indicates a growing negativity towards the BRI in European English media, with sentiments averaging 38% from 2015 to 2023 and peaking at 56% and 54% in 2022 and 2023, respectively. Ideological differences often discussed in academic circles include a contrast between the emphasis on individualism in the West and the values of collectivism prominent in Chinese culture. However, it is important to recognize the diversity within these broad categories. This research offers insights for BRI stakeholders and enriches academic discourse with updated data. Its novelty lies in its dual-tiered approach to news relevance for content analysis and the application of three-dimensional CDA to BRI news discourse, revealing ideological disparities not previously explored.

Assessing the Belt and Road Initiative’s environmental footprint: an impact evaluation analysis of African member countries

This empirical study undertakes a rigorous examination of the environmental sustainability impact of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) on its member countries. Employing a robust difference-in-difference quasi-natural experimental technique, our analysis spans a panel of 69 countries, covering the years from 1990 to 2022. Our primary metric for assessing ecological strain is the total Ecological Footprint consumption (EFP), measured in global hectares, which encapsulates the ecological exhaustion resulting from economic activities. This study not only contributes to the growing body of literature on the BRI’s economic, social, and environmental impacts but also distinguishes itself by providing experimental evidence of its environmental repercussions 10 years post-initiative commencement for member countries and 4 years for African countries in which the majority joined in 2018. Our findings reveal a significant increase in ecological footprint consumption among the BRI member countries after 2014, implying that participation in the BRI has contributed to heightened ecological depletion in these nations. Additionally, our analysis highlights the same impact for African countries, where ecological footprint consumption substantially escalated after joining the BRI in 2018. This pivotal discovery calls for the attention of not only the Chinese government, a driving force behind the BRI, but also all member countries partaking in this international collaboration. It signals a potential ecological deficit and future productivity impairment, urging stakeholders to reconsider and address the environmental ramifications of their endeavors.

Indo-Pakistan rivalry and integrated ring balancing: prospects and challenges to regional stability in South Asia

ABSTRACT Pakistan's security landscape faces unprecedented challenges due to India's burgeoning power and its strategic alignment with the United States. This study proposes an innovative ‘Integrated Ring Balancing’ framework to navigate this complex geopolitical environment. The framework operates across three tiers: Tier 1: Direct engagement with immediate neighbors – India, Iran, China, and Afghanistan. Tier 2: Building robust linkages with the neighbors of Pakistan's Tier 1 partners, encompassing South Asia, Central Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Middle East. Tier 3: Leveraging major powers – China, Russia, and the United States – through Tier 1 and 2 partnerships. This multi-layered approach aims to achieve two key objectives: (1) Neutralize India's US-backed advantage: Engaging China and Russia can influence Tier 2 states, particularly in Central Asia, to rebalance their regional positioning towards Pakistan. (2) Develop a collective defense system: Converging geo-economic interests via initiatives like the China–Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) and the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) can foster a regional security ring around Pakistan. By strategically engaging across these tiers, Pakistan can navigate the complex power dynamics in South Asia, bolster its security, and ultimately safeguard its national interests in the face of a strengthened India.

Internal and External Threats to the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor

The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) has been considered a significant development project for Pakistan. Since its inception, the project has attracted billions of dollars into Pakistan’s development sector. However, CPEC is facing several challenges driven by both internal and external factors. Internally, CPEC has been disrupted by the Baloch insurgency, which is driven by grievances among the Baloch, recent terrorist activities inspired by the Taliban's return to Afghanistan, and the looming threat of political instability within Pakistan. Externally, the evolving political situation in Afghanistan, India's concerns about territorial disputes, and the competition between the US and China also have implications for the CPEC project. CPEC is an essential part of China's ambitious Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and is vital for regional integration. However, the internal and external threats have slowed down the progress of the CPEC project. This paper attempts to analyse the prevailing threats to CPEC and present recommendations to overcome them.

Global risk assessment of river pollution stress based on nighttime light remote sensing data

Rivers play a crucial role in the development of human civilization, and river pollution is a significant environmental issue that accompanies with intensified human activity. However, the evaluation of river pollution at a global scale is difficult because of the limitations of long-term pollution-related datasets. As human activities are the main factor causing river pollution, nighttime light (NTL) remote sensing data can be used as an alternative indicator of the risk of river pollution stress(RPS), which is closely related to human activities and refers to the amount of pollutants within the confluence range of river reaches. In this study, we propose a river pollution pressure index (PI) to indicate risk of RPS by considering the accumulation effect of water flow. Then we calculated PI of over 0.67 million reaches global with annual total flow >100 million m3/s from 2000 to 2022, which was validated using water quality data of >2000 river sections in China. The results show that, from 2000 to 2022, the spatial variations of the risk of RPS are uneven, with a migration trend from west to east. The risk of RPS continues to increase globally, especially rapidly after 2010. Central Asia, Southeast Asia, East Asia, and eastern China are the regions with the fastest growth rates. In most developed countries, developing countries, and underdeveloped countries, the risk of RPS is high and increasing slowly, moderate and increasing rapidly, and low and increasing slowly, respectively. However, in some special cases, such as Japan, the risk of RPS continues to decrease. These spatiotemporal variations of the risk of RPS correlate with global events, such as quantitative easing of global economy after 2008, China's “Belt and Road Initiative”, and COVID-19. This study demonstrates that NTL data can be applied to evaluate the global risk of RPS.