Riverine Fisheries Research Articles

Research on a Multi-Species Combined Habitat Suitability Assessment Method for Various Fish Species

To reveal the evolution of habitat distribution for multiple fish species in the lower reaches of the Gongzui Hydropower Station, this study conducted a catch survey to determine the target species of the reach. Based on their suitability curves, a combined suitability assessment model for multiple fish species was constructed. The reliability of the model was verified by combining acoustic observations of flow fields and fish distribution in specific flow conditions. A two-dimensional hydrodynamic model was coupled to quantitatively analyze the distribution characteristics of fish habitat patches under different flow conditions. The results indicate that the correlation coefficient between the multi-species comprehensive suitability index and the number of fish is 0.676, which indicates that the model can better evaluate the distribution of multiple fish habitats in the study river reach; the weighted usable area (WUA) decreased as the discharge increased; from low flow condition (<800 m3/s) to high flow condition (>2000 m3/s), the patch area of suitable habitat decreased from 11,424 m2 to 1268 m2, and the connectivity between patches also showed a downward trend; and the habitat shifted to the near-shore area of the downstream wider and shallower section, which was highly correlated with the migration process of low-depth and low-velocity areas. The model proposed in this study can establish a rapid response between the suitable habitat distribution of multiple fish species and discharge conditions, which can provide a research method for quantitative evaluation of multi-species habitats in river, and make a significant contribution to the sustainable development of riverine fisheries resources and river water ecology.

Fisheries and SDGs at Namasagali Fishing Village, Kamuli Disrtict, Uganda

Attainment of SDGs has been derailed mainly by conflicts, pandemics and climate change. In Uganda, limited quantification of the value Riverine fisheries provide to communities is a major driver to unsustainable harvesting and destruction fisheries resources. This study was conducted to determine the monetary value contributed to households by fisheries activities at Namasagali fishing Village, one of the spots along Victoria Nile, major challenges faced and possible strategies to be adopted to enhance community ownership and sustainable management. A cross sectional survey was conducted using questionnaires and data on major activities conducted around the fishery and the corresponding income recorded and as analyzed using SPSS statistical package. Results showed that fisheries activities aprovided the highest amount of daily household income of between (5000 - 100,000 Shillings; USD $1.35-2.70) to 45% of households in the community. This income was higher than the established World Bank poverty line of US $1.25/1.9 per day in the year 2005. Major challenge to sustainability of the fishery were use of illegal fishing gears and methods. Sensitization of the fisherfolk i and enforcement of fisheries regulations was recommended as the main strategy to advance sustainable fisheries resources at Namasagali Fishing Village.

Aquaculture: Riverine Fisheries Development in Bihar

Aquaculture: Riverine Fisheries Development in Bihar

Hydropower Dam Development and Fish Biodiversity in the Mekong River Basin: A Review

Over the last few decades, considerable concern has been expressed about the threat of Mekong River Basin hydropower dams to a range of important freshwater riverine fisheries, particularly for fish that seasonally migrate long distances. However, much less attention has been given to the threat of hydropower dams to fish biodiversity in the high-diversity Mekong River Basin, the focus of this paper. Through reviewing the existing state of knowledge regarding Mekong River Basin fish biodiversity, and threats to it, we argue that even though no species are definitively known to have been extirpated from the Mekong River Basin to date, hydropower dam development and various other developments nevertheless pose a serious threat to fish biodiversity. Indeed, dams typically significantly block fish migrations and fish larvae distribution, cause river fragmentation, fundamentally alter river hydrology, and change water quality, all factors that have the potential to intersect with each other and lead to significant species extirpation and extinction, or in some cases, functional extinction, when a small population remains but the important larger population is lost permanently. The circumstances are further exacerbated by the lag time between impact and when that impact becomes evident, cumulative impacts, a lack of consistent data collection, including the collection of base-line data, and insufficient post-project research related to biodiversity. We contend that much more could and should be done to ensure that the Mekong River basin’s exceptional fish biodiversity is not variously diminished and destroyed during the coming years.

Population parameters and exploitation rates of four commercial fish species of Awach Kibuon River: Towards sustainable management of riverine fisheries of the Lake Victoria Basin

The study estimated population parameters of four leading commercial fish species of Awach Kibuon River in Lake Victoria Basin, Kenya to inform management interventions for sustainability. Length data were collected monthly from January to December 2020 and length-frequency analysis conducted in FiSAT II software utilizing ELEFAN I Routines. Exploitation rates (E = 0.63) for Protopterus aethiopicus (Heckel, 1851) and (E = 0.56) for Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822) indicate overfished stocks (E > Eopt) whereas exploitation rates (E = 0.31) for Synodontis victoriae (Boulenger, 1906) and (E = 0.32) for Oreochromis niloticus (Linnaeus, 1758) signify optimal exploitation (E = Eopt). There were year-round recruitments with bi-modal annual pulses in the populations of O. niloticus, S. victoriae, and P. aethiopicus. These results are crucial for sustainable management of riverine fisheries in the Lake Victoria Basin. This study recommends reduction of fishing pressure on P. aethiopicus and C. gariepinus to enhance their sustainability.

Fisheries as ecosystem services: A case study of the Cauvery river basin, India

Habitat alterations and fragmentation caused by anthropogenic modifications of the riverine landscape have affected fish biodiversity by reducing the number of fish species. Fish are a major element of the aquatic environment, and they play an important role in maintaining ecosystem resilience. However, an incomplete understanding of links between river ecosystem functions and processes with fisheries is one of the major reasons for the alarming rate of decline of fish species. Recognizing the ecosystem services generated by fish populations is essential and is one step toward comprehensive, ecosystem-based management of riverine fisheries. Therefore, this paper is motivated by the need to explore the dimensions of fisheries as an ecosystem service. The data was collected from primary field observations and checklist-based key informant interviews at the seventeen fishing sites selected across an 800 km river stretch of the river. In addition, two focused group discussions with fishers at two sampling sites were held to provide first-hand knowledge of ecosystem services generated by fisheries. At first, the role of fisheries in generating ecosystem services for riverine ecosystem functioning and human demands is outlined using the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment approach. Then, the findings of a survey carried out from the headwaters to the delta of the Cauvery river are presented detailing the fisheries provisioning services, livelihoods, and other ecosystem services. The findings showed that the provisioning and cultural services are highly represented among the four categories of ecosystem services identified by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. However, in the literature reviewed, supporting, and regulating services are not well-represented. Based on these findings, the applicability of the ecosystem service concept can be elaborated to inform researchers and policymakers to enhance conservation efforts for fisheries.

RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF FISHES IN Chandakhal WETLAND OF DHUBRI DISTRICT, ASSAM (INDIA) AND THEIR CONSERVATION STATUS

The Inland fisheries and aquaculture play an important role in providing cheap animal protein to the human dietary composition of the rural Assam in India. Fish groups like carps, clupeids, perches, murrels, catfishes, minnows etc. comprise a good number of species in the region. Apart from the riverine fisheries different wetland fisheries associated with the two major rivers, namely the Brahmaputra and Barak in Assam have contributed a major part in fish production. The aim of the present study is to enquire about the numerical relative abundance of fishes in Chandakhal wetland located in Dhubri district, in the state of Assam, India. This is an investigative study based on the data collected from fish catch at the designated landing stations. It finds that the numerical relative abundance of most of the valued food fishes falling under Major Fish Group is less than 1.00% and the total numerical relative abundance of the Major Group fishes constitutes only 4.05%. Among the Major Group fishes Labeo calbasu has the highest relative abundance of 0.74%. Under the Intermediate fish group, the most abundant species is Macrognathus pancalus having the numerical relative abundance 5.58%. Again, among the Minor Group, Lepidocephalichthys guntea is the most relatively abundant fish species whose numerical relative abundance is 7.92%. The ‘near threatened’ species like Wallago attu and Chitala chitala are having relative abundances of 0.23% and 0.09% respectively and the ‘endangered’ species Clarias magur is found to have the relative abundance as low as 0.08% in the present study.

Present status and approach for sustainable management of riverine fisheries of Nigeria

Nigeria has many rivers spread all over the country providing important goods and services to the people, including fisheries. The rivers are also used for several other purposes that require better management of these vast resources to increase fish production. This paper briefly highlights: i) the extent of river systems; ii) potential and production from river fisheries; iii) fish production of Nigeria during 2006–2015; iv) characteristics of river fisheries; v) problems faced by the riverine fisheries and legal regulatory regime and management of river fisheries in Nigeria. The data used were from published information on the riverine fisheries in Nigeria and the role of government in the management of the resources. The river systems have heterogeneity of many fish species of commercial importance with little or no management measures in place to protect the resources due to open access nature and weak and ineffective fisheries regulations. The paper suggests a new framework for management of river fisheries. The new approach recognizes that effectiveness of the river fisheries management relies on the integration of all river management agencies in Nigeria and the formulation and implementation of holistic management policies. Measures such as the fish stock enhancements, river restoration and use of effective regulations with community involvement should be given adequate attention. Key words River, Inland fisheries, Regulations, Management, Nigeria

Patterns of fish community composition and biodiversity in riverine fish sanctuaries in Bangladesh: Implications for hilsa shad conservation

AbstractUnderstanding biodiversity and community composition is a prerequisite to sustainable exploitation and conservation of fisheries. We assessed the spatial and seasonal patterns of fish community composition and biodiversity in seasonal no‐take riverine sanctuaries in Bangladesh, which aim to conserve the anadromous hilsa shad (Tenualosa spp. and Hilsa keele). Fish samples were collected during monsoon, as well as pre‐ and postmonsoon, from five sites within two sanctuaries and one site in an open fishing area. Although total abundance was similar along the rivers, species richness was significantly higher at the open fishing site due to its connectivity to nearby habitats. The diversity apparently decreased in a downstream direction. Fish communities at two upstream sites were separated from other sites in multivariate space largely due to higher abundance of hilsa at downstream sites and presence of floodplain‐oriented species at the two upstream sites. Short body length and high trophic level at all sites indicated that fish communities were overexploited. Our results also indicated that riverine hilsa sanctuaries in Bangladesh are rich in fish species diversity and support several threatened species designated by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Our study also suggested that since hilsa abundance shapes community patterns, it can therefore impact riverine ecosystem functioning in the sanctuary areas. The findings of this study can serve as an important baseline for future biodiversity assessment, conservation and impact assessment of conservation in rivers, and therefore help to establish multispecies ecosystem‐based management of riverine fisheries around the world.

Cryptic Lineages and a Population Dammed to Incipient Extinction? Insights into the Genetic Structure of a Mekong River Catfish.

An understanding of the genetic composition of populations across management boundaries is vital to developing successful strategies for sustaining biodiversity and food resources. This is especially important in ecosystems where habitat fragmentation has altered baseline patterns of gene flow, dividing natural populations into smaller subpopulations and increasing potential loss of genetic variation through genetic drift. River systems can be highly fragmented by dams built for flow regulation and hydropower. We used reduced-representation sequencing to examine genomic patterns in an exploited catfish, Hemibagrus spilopterus, in a hotspot of biodiversity and hydropower development-the Mekong River basin. Our results revealed the presence of 2 highly divergent coexisting genetic lineages which may be cryptic species. Within the lineage with the greatest sample sizes, pairwise FST values, principal component analysis, and a STRUCTURE analysis all suggest that long-distance migration is not common across the Lower Mekong Basin, even in areas where flood-pulse hydrology has limited genetic divergence. In tributaries, effective population size estimates were at least an order of magnitude lower than in the Mekong mainstream indicating these populations may be more vulnerable to perturbations such as human-induced fragmentation. Fish isolated upstream of several dams in one tributary exhibited particularly low genetic diversity, high amounts of relatedness, and a level of inbreeding (GIS = 0.51) that has been associated with inbreeding depression in other outcrossing species. Our results highlight the importance of assessing genetic structure and diversity in riverine fisheries populations across proposed dam development sites for the preservation of these critically important resources.

Image techniques in turbid rivers: A ten-year assessment of cyprinid stocks composition and size

Riverine fisheries frequently face complex challenges along with the limitations of costly and yet poor data. This is the case of the middle to low reaches of many basins with turbid waters, where large stocks of cyprinids perform wide spawning migrations. These reaches support both commercial and recreational fisheries frequently exploiting stocks of unknown size. There, habitat complexity, turbid waters, and large moving populations hinder the use of non-extractive image techniques (video and photography) for species identification and stock assessment. So far, such techniques are therefore restricted to clear freshwaters and marine environments. In this study, image techniques and sampling methods are used to monitor large riverine stocks of two barbel species (Luciobarbus sp.) over ten years, while maintaining low economic costs and human effort. The techniques take advantage of the behaviors of the fish relative to a weir and a fish pass while migrating upstream to their spawning grounds. For that, meristic and morphological traits taken from individuals simultaneously captured and photographed were used to identify the taxa and validate this method. The subset of traits still reliable in the images was used to identify free-ranging leaping individuals from a ten-year span photographic database (2007–2016) and determine the annual relative abundance of every taxon. Video images taken at the fishway in dry and humid years were used to estimate absolute stock size in contrasting hydrologic years (2014–2016). Finally, estimates of migrating barbel stocks and their size across hydrologic year variation were obtained through sampling methods and combination of the aforementioned data. The pros and cons of the sampling methods and image techniques used are discussed relative to their applicability to the monitoring and management of cyprinid riverine fisheries in turbid reaches.

What are the impacts of flow regime changes on fish productivity in temperate regions? A systematic map protocol

BackgroundEcosystem changes from altered flows can have multiple impacts on fish, including changes to physical habitat, habitat access, food supplies, behaviour, community composition, energy expenditure, and population dynamics. There is growing evidence of the potential negative consequences of altered flow regimes on fluvial ecosystems and the fisheries they support. As such, the scientific and policy communities have acknowledged the need for maintaining or restoring natural flow variability in order to sustain ecological health of fluvial ecosystems. However, for resource managers, making decisions on the potential effects of flow alterations on fish productivity has been problematic because there are still uncertainties regarding flow-fish productivity relationships. Therefore, to ensure the maintenance of healthy and productive aquatic ecosystems and the sustainability of riverine fisheries, a better understanding of the impacts of flow alteration on fish productivity is needed. Due to the wide scope of this review, and the diversity of fish productivity outcomes used to evaluate flow alteration impacts, the set of studies will be quite heterogeneous. Therefore, prior to undertaking a comprehensive and quantitative synthesis, we propose to begin with a systematic map to provide an overview of the available evidence on the impacts of flow regime changes on fish productivity. We will also use this systematic map to identify subtopics that are sufficiently covered by existing studies to allow full systematic reviewing.MethodsThis systematic map will compile evidence on the impacts of flow regime changes on fish productivity. All studies that evaluate the effects of flow regime change on direct outcomes of fish productivity, will be included in the review. We will use a broad definition of fish productivity to include any measurement related to: biomass, abundance, density, yield, diversity, growth, survival, individual performance, migration, reproduction, recruitment, or surrogate thereof. Relevant causes of a change in/modification to flow regime can include: (1) anthropogenic causes: dams, reservoirs (impoundments), hydroelectric facilities, locks, levees, water withdrawal (abstraction), water diversion, land-use changes, and road culverts; or (2) natural causes: climate change (possible indirect anthropogenic cause as well), floods, droughts, seasonal changes. Any freshwater or estuarine fish species or species groups in temperate regions will be considered. The review will include a wide range of sources including primary and grey literature and use public databases, search engines and specialist websites. A searchable database containing extracted meta-data from relevant included studies will be developed and provided as a supplementary file to the map report. The final narrative will describe the quantity and key characteristics of the available evidence, identify knowledge gaps for future research and identify subtopics that are sufficiently covered by existing studies to allow full systematic reviewing.

Socioeconomic status of riverine fisher communities in India

The inland traditional fishers, such as those from riverine, estuarine, reservoirs, and wetlands of India, are primarily dependent on natural waters for their livelihoods. Governments at various levels have made several efforts, including decentralization of management rights, promotion of cooperatives and formation of self-help groups, to develop the fisheries. Despite these efforts, production from most of the culture-based inland fishery waters (particularly adopting fish stock enhancements) is below potential, as a vast gap is observed between the potential and existing fish production. There is immense potential for increasing the fishing effort, production and income. Capture fishery resources, particularly in the riverine fisheries, are declining due to resource degradation and excessive exploitation. The impact of fisheries developmental programmes instituted by government agencies like the National Fisheries Development Board are hardly recognised on fisheries communities due to the multiple-use common pool resource nature of the fishing resource. Comprehensive investigations on the socioeconomic status of riverine fisher communities are rare. The present investigation studies the socioeconomic conditions of riverine fisher communities in different regions of India. The study covered six states of five regions in India: Uttar Pradesh in the North; Tamil Nadu and Kerala in the South; Orissa and West Bengal in the East; Gujarat in the West; Assam in the northeastern region. The overall socioeconomic index results concluded that almost all the regions have achieved only 46% to 52% of the socioeconomic criteria studied. Institutional financial support for alternate income generation activities; organisation under self-help groups, and vocational training for fisherwomen to undertake alternate income-generating activities during the closed/off season are some of the suggestions resulting from the investigation.

Livelihood impacts of hydropower projects on downstream communities in central Laos and mitigation measures

We examine the social impacts of reservoir construction and management on communities located downstream from four hydropower projects in central Laos using the sustainable livelihoods framework to categorise and quantify impacts across environmental, financial, physical, human and social domains. Hydropower projects had profound impacts on the livelihoods of riparian households living downstream of the case study dams. Many were positive. Employment, social programs and infrastructure development were direct benefits. Indirect benefits included improvements in tourism and hospitality facilities as a consequence of hydropower project infrastructure such as access roads. For most case study households, these beneficial impacts outweighed adverse impacts on riverine fisheries. Minimising negative impacts and maximising the potential benefits requires that the construction, operation, and direct and indirect relations of the project operator with the communities meet appropriate standards of social responsibility. Policy implications of the research for hydropower policy in Laos, such as conditioning development, are discussed.

Linking freshwater fishery management to global food security and biodiversity conservation.

Fisheries are an essential ecosystem service, but catches from freshwaters are often overlooked. Hundreds of millions of people around the world benefit from low-cost protein, recreation, and commerce provided by freshwater fisheries, particularly in regions where alternative sources of nutrition and employment are scarce. Here, we derive a gridded global map of riverine fisheries and assess its implications for biodiversity conservation, fishery sustainability, and food security. Catches increase with river discharge and human population density, and 90% of global catch comes from river basins with above-average stress levels. Fish richness and catches are positively but not causally correlated, revealing that fishing pressure is most intense in rivers where potential impacts on biodiversity are highest. Merging our catch analysis with nutritional and socioeconomic data, we find that freshwater fisheries provide the equivalent of all dietary animal protein for 158 million people. Poor and undernourished populations are particularly reliant on inland fisheries compared with marine or aquaculture sources. The spatial coincidence of productive freshwater fisheries and low food security highlights the critical role of rivers and lakes in providing locally sourced, low-cost protein. At the same time, intensive fishing in regions where rivers are already degraded by other stressors may undermine efforts to conserve biodiversity. This syndrome of poverty, nutritional deficiency, fishery dependence, and extrinsic threats to biodiverse river ecosystems underscores the high stakes for improving fishery management. Our enhanced spatial data on estimated catches can facilitate the inclusion of inland fisheries in environmental planning to protect both food security and species diversity.

Institutions and Governance in Fisheries of Indian Brahmaputra River Basin

Riverine fisheries are of great importance in the tropical regions of the earth as they provide food and nutrition to millions of people and support their livelihood. Brahmaputra is one of the largest rivers of the world having a drainage area of 580,000 square kilometers. Institutional arrangements have been compared in two river stretches and wetlands under different management regimes, namely: (i) open access (North Lakhimpur district); (ii) Fishermen cooperative (Kamrup district); and 15 floodplain wetlands (in three districts) under Individual, cooperative and open access. The open access regime has no institutional arrangements, while for cooperative and individual regime, the river and wetlands were leased out for 7 years.The ownership of riverine stretches of Brahmaputra lies with department of revenue, while the ownership of floodplain wetlands under various government departments.The study concluded that involvement of actual fisher institutions fisheries may be encouraged for better fisheries management. A need was also felt for periodic evaluation of these institutional arrangements towards their performance and natural resources use. The inclusion of the entire actor group and the presence of active linkages within and among them will strengthen governability.

Contribution of stocked fish to riverine populations of golden perch (Macquaria ambigua) in the Murray–Darling Basin, Australia

Stocking of native fishes is conducted to augment riverine fisheries in many parts of the world, yet most stocking activities are conducted without empirical information on their effectiveness or impacts. In the Murray–Darling Basin (MDB), Australia, stocking has been underway for several decades to maintain recreational fisheries. We stocked chemically tagged golden perch (Macquaria ambigua) fingerlings in three rivers to determine the proportions of stocked fish within populations of the species. Stocked sites were monitored for up to 5 years in the Murrumbidgee River, Edward River and Billabong Creek and non-stocked sites were monitored in the Murray River. Catch per unit effort of stocked year classes increased substantially in Billabong Creek, with stocked fish contributing 100 (2005), 79 (2006) and 92% (2007). Chemically tagged fish comprised 18–38% of the respective age classes in the Murrumbidgee and Edward rivers and there was little evidence of natural recruitment in the non-stocked Murray River. Tagged fish generally attained the legal minimum size within 4 years and had dispersed up to 60km from the original release location. Our results demonstrate that artificial stocking has the potential to strongly influence the abundance and population structure of golden perch in rivers of the MDB.

Salmo salar in late medieval Scotland: competition and conservation for a riverine resource

Across the western and northern European range of diadromous Salmo salar (Atlantic salmon) during the Middle Ages (ca.500–ca.1500 CE), this fish was a highly prized object of elite human consumption, of intense seasonal fishing, of human competition, and, by the 1200s, a victim of evident depletion. What, then, enabled long traditional riverine fisheries in Scotland to become a major export producer in late medieval centuries? Provisional survey of published written records, some archival collections, and archaeological evidence establishes the great value Scottish kings and landowners placed on salmon fishing sites and their product. Knowledgeable workers for the holders of fishing rights caught salmon especially with beach seines and fixed weirs. Their catch went to elite households and urban markets for domestic consumption and was especially from the late 1300s packed in barrels for export to regions around the North Sea where diminished native runs failed to meet rising demand. Medieval Scots competed for the right to catch their salmon but did not complain that those catches were shrinking. From about 1200 royal judgments and by the early 1300s parliamentary legislation placed Scottish salmon fisheries under public regulation, prohibiting fishing at certain times and seasons and requiring all gear to permit passage of pre-migrant juveniles. Early imposition in Scotland of these limits to private fishing rights as well as an agrarian regime that (unintentionally) minimized barriers to migrants and preserved headwater spawning habitats may help explain the apparently greater sustainability of salmon stocks in Scotland than elsewhere in late medieval Europe.

Physico-chemical properties of Dhepa River in Dinajpur District of Bangladesh

Among different water quality parameters dissolved oxygen, transparency, pH, PO4-P and depth varied significantly among the sampling sites. The pH value in the present investigation remained a buffer condition (6.50- 7.90). Dissolved oxygen was ranges from 3.80 to 11.60 mg/l throughout the study periods. PO4-P concentration was observed highest (0.30 mg/l) in sampling site 2. On the basis of physical, chemical aspects sampling site 3 and sampling site 5 (situated in gosaipur and chandandoho) found in better condition in terms of limnological aspects. However, it could be concluded that Dhepa River will play important role in riverine fisheries and for further fisheries management.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/jesnr.v6i1.22041 J. Environ. Sci. & Natural Resources, 6(1): 59-67 2013

Fishing Gear in the Sondu-Miriu River: Level of Use, Preference and Selectivity

Artisan fishers of Osodo beach of Sondu-Miriu River (Kenya) use both traditional and modern gear to catch riverine fish species. This study, conducted between August 2006 and July 2007, revealed that fishers most predominantly used gear were the seine nets (42%) and the gill nets (28%). Other used gear include long lines (14%); fish baskets (9%) and weirs (7%). The selectivity of this fishing gear varied with the developmental stages of the fish to be caught. Non-selective gear caught both targeted and non-targeted species irrespective of size and development stages. The ranking of selective to non-selective fishing gear was the long lines, fish baskets, weirs, gill nets and beach nets at 2%, 11%, 16%, 24% and 32%, respectively. The non-selective fishing gear may have negative impacts on the riverine fish by reducing spawning biomass and lacustrine fish recruitment. These findings underscore the need for greater appreciation, research, and adaptation of appropriate fishing gear to ensure sustainable utilization of the riverine fisheries in Sondu-Miriu RiverDOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/hn.v15i0.11301HYDRO Nepal JournalJournal of Water Energy and EnvironmentVolume: 15, 2014, JulyPage: 82-86