Risk Of Physical Harm Research Articles

A Behavioral Economic Examination of Sexual Behaviors in the Era of Pre-exposure Prophylaxis via Explanatory Sequential Mixed Methods.

Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) use may be associated with condom use decisions. The current investigation examined sexual decision-making in the context of PrEP among young adult men who have sex with men (MSM) between 18 and 30years old, using an explanatory sequential mixed methods design. For the quantitative aim, 99 MSM currently taking PrEP (i.e., PrEP-experienced) and 140 MSM not currently taking PrEP (i.e., PrEP-naive) completed an online survey, including the Sexual Delay Discounting Task (SDDT), which captures likelihood of condom use. For the qualitative aim, 15 people from each group were interviewed about their (1) conceptualizations of risky sex and (2) ways they manage their sexual risk. Participants were, on average, 25.69years old (SD = 3.07) and 64% White. Results from the quantitative aim revealed, controlling for covariates, PrEP-experienced participants exhibited significantly lower likelihood of (1) using an immediately available condom and (2) waiting for a delayed condom (i.e., sexual delay discounting) compared to PrEP-naive participants. Qualitative themes explaining what young adult MSM consider to be risky sex included: (1) any sex as risky sex, (2) risky sex as "sex without a conversation," and (3) risky sex as sex with risk for physical harm. Themes on ways young adult MSM manage sexual risk were classified as proactive, reactive, and passive. Results suggest that PrEP use is related to condom use decisions. Taken together, quantitative differences in sexual delay discounting, but qualitatively similar conceptualizations and management of risky sex, suggest that the SDDT may be a useful tool in sex research to capture processes (i.e., delay discounting) underlying sexual decision-making that may be missed by traditional self-reports. Implications of results, including potentially providing (good quality) condoms with every PrEP prescription, and future research topics are discussed.

Institutional Logics, Risk and Extreme Events: Insights from and for Management Education

AbstractTo shed light on the interrelationship between risk and logics, we explore how multiple institutional logics shape management educators’ experiences of risk in classroom teaching. Using a two‐case research design, we analyse an empirical case study of management educators in a UK business school during the COVID‐19 pandemic and a case study of emergency physicians during the Ebola epidemic. Comparing these two focal cases of different types of frontline professional work during global health crises, we develop a model of how perceptions of risks and their mitigation shape, and are shaped by, experiences of compatibility, contestation and rejection among multiple logics. Our study extends the literatures on institutional logics and risk by providing insight into the role of multiple logics in the social construction of risk. We also contribute to the management education literature by focusing attention on the risks of physical harm in classroom teaching and by theorizing when, how and why management educators apprehend these risks as ordinary or extraordinary to their normal professional role. Finally, our study has practical implications for risk mitigation at individual and organizational levels and for creatively and safely adapting teaching and learning practices with students during extreme events.

Decision-making on out-of-home care: The case of Flanders

Out-of-home placement decisions are complex and have a strong impact on children and their parents. Factors influencing these decisions can be grouped in four domains: case characteristics, decision maker characteristics, factors related to the organization of the decision maker, and external factors. This study aimed at investigating the role of case, worker and organization variables in an out-of-home placement decision. 95 Flemish child welfare workers were presented a vignette of a case of alleged child maltreatment and were asked to recommend an intervention. About 14% of workers recommended an out-of-home placement. Out of all variables, only the presence of physical neglect (OR = 3.94, p <.05), the risk of physical harm (OR = 3.28, p <.01) and the education level (OR = 5.21, p <.05) were significantly associated with the recommendation. Using purposeful selection of covariates a model with 9 variables was obtained with only one significant variables: the attitude ‘Against removal from home’ (OR = 0.12, p <.05). Decision making regarding out-of-home care by Flemish child welfare workers was associated with a negative attitude regarding removing children from home. Other variables had little influence. Methods in order to parcel out more the influence of worker variables and heighten the influence of case variables are strongly needed.

Investigation of the Physical Properties and Acoustic Performance of Composites Developed From Natural Fibres

Noise pollution is one of the most pressing issues in our society today. Controlling noise has become one of the most essential and prevalent factors in the development of acoustic materials. Traditionally, numerous expensive and synthetic sound-absorption materials, such as glass fibre, carbon fibre and polymer fibres were utilised to suppress noise, posing additional harm to living organisms and the environment. Natural fibres derived from renewable resources can be utilised as sound-absorption materials that are inexpensive, bio-degradable, recyclable and readily available. Natural fibre-reinforced composites are currently exclusively used for diverse applications in the automobile industry, construction, building sectors, furniture and other industries. The risk of physical harm and health issues has been greatly reduced by adopting these natural fibre materials. In this research, an attempt has been made to manufacture composites from four natural fibres: hemp, bagasse, Arenga pinnata and bamboo. These four natural fibres were mixed in a 50:50 proportion along with polypropylene and developed into a textile composite using the thermal bonding method. The developed natural composite materials were tested for sound-absorption co-efficient using the impedance tube method and various physical properties, such as flexural rigidity, thickness, tensile strength, elongation, areal density, air permeability and thermal conductivity, were analysed for the composites using the standard testing procedures. All the possible influential factors that determine the acoustic characteristics property of the fibres are taken into consideration for the enhancement of the acoustic absorption of the composites. The sound-absorption co-efficient percent of the Arenga pinnata/polypropylene composite sample is higher than other fibres.

Why Don\u2019t Japanese Early Childhood Educators Intervene in Children\u2019s Physical Fights? Some Characteristics of the Mimamoru Approach

This study aims to examine pedagogical meanings of the Mimamoru approach frequently used by Japanese early childhood educators in children’s physical fights. Mimamoru is a strategy in which educators intentionally withhold an intervention, while carefully observing children, to foster children’s voluntary participation in their own learning, socially and cognitively. In this report, we examine why Japanese educators tend not to intervene, and how they determine whether their intervention is necessary. Using methods from Tobin’s video cued multi-vocal ethnography, we conducted focus groups at 9 early childhood education and care facilities (7 in Japan and 2 in the U.S.) with a total of 34 Japanese and 12 U.S. educators. They watched a short video clip in which a mid-career male teacher, one of the Japanese participants, used the Mimamoru approach with two children involved in a physical fight. Educators, then, discussed their interpretations of the teacher’s responses to children. The analyses of the participants’ discussion suggest that educators’ non-intervention, an important feature of the Mimamoru approach, provides children with opportunities to autonomously learn interpersonal skills, for example, through the experiences of feeling guilty and solving problems by themselves. Yet educators do intervene when they determine that the risk of physical harm caused by fighting is greater than the benefit for children to learn. Implications of the Mimamoru approach, including in other cultural contexts, are discussed.

Assessment of alcohol use disorder and its associated factors among alcohol users of medical and surgical outpatients attending a specialized hospital in Gondar, Ethiopia: a cross-sectional study

BackgroundAlcohol use disorder increase the risk of physical harm, mental or social consequences for patients and others in the community. Studies on alcohol use disorder and associated factors among medical and surgical outpatients in Ethiopia are limited. Therefore, this study is meant to provide essential data on alcohol use disorder and associated factors among alcohol user medical and surgical outpatients to intervene in the future.MethodsAn institution-based cross-sectional study was conducted by using the systematic random sampling technique. Alcohol use disorders were assessed using the World Health Organization’s 10-item Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test (AUDIT) questionnaire. Bivariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were performed, a P-value less than 0.05 were considered statistically significant in the multivariate analysis and the strength of association was measured at a 95% confidence interval.ResultsThe prevalence of alcohol use disorder was 34.5% with a 95% CI (29.20, 39.80) among study participants. In the multivariate logistic regression analysis, male sex (AOR = 3.33, 95%CI: 1.40, 7.93), history of mental illness (AOR = 2.68, 95%CI: 1.12, 6.38), drinking for relaxation (AOR = 1.88, 95%CI: 1.02, 3.48) and history of lifetime tobacco use (AOR = 5.64, 95%CI: 1.95, 16.29) were factors significantly associated with alcohol use disorder.ConclusionThe prevalence of alcohol use disorders among medical and surgical outpatients was found to be high. Male sex, history of mental illness, alcohol use for relaxation and lifetime cigarette smoking need more attention during the assessment of patients in the medical and surgical outpatient departments.

Patient Preferences for Hepatocellular Carcinoma Surveillance Parameters

Professional societies recommend abdominal ultrasound (US) with or without alpha fetoprotein (AFP) for hepatocellular cancer (HCC) surveillance; however, there are several emerging surveillance modalities, including abbreviated MRI and blood-based biomarker panels. Most studies have focused on provider perspectives for surveillance logistics, but few have assessed patient preferences. We aimed to measure preferences among patients with cirrhosis regarding HCC surveillance modalities. We conducted a choice-based conjoint survey to patients with cirrhosis at four institutions. Participants were provided 15 scenarios in which they were asked to choose surveillance modalities based on five test attributes: benefits, i.e. sensitivity for early HCC (range: 35-95%), physical harm, i.e. false positives requiring additional testing (range: 10-40%), financial harm, i.e. out-of-pocket costs (range: $10-100), test logistics and convenience, i.e. duration of testing (range: 10-60 min). Hierarchical Bayes discrete choice conjoint analysis was used to derive attribute importance, and preference shares were determined by simulation. In total 91% (182/199) of approached patients consented to participate in the study and 98% (n=179) successfully completed the survey. Surveillance benefits (importance: 51.3%, 95%CI: 49.0-53.4%) were valued more than risk of physical harm (importance: 7.6%, 95%CI 7.0-8.2%), financial harm (importance: 15.2%, 95%CI 14.0-16.3%), convenience (importance: 9.3%, 95%CI 8.5-10.1%) and test logistics (importance: 16.7%, 95%CI 15.4-18.1%). Based on simulations including all possible tests, patients preferred abbreviated MRI (29.0%), MRI (23.3%), or novel blood-based biomarkers (20.9%) to ultrasound alone (3.4%) or with AFP (8.8%). Patients with cirrhosis prioritize early HCC detection over potential surveillance-related harms or inconvenience.

The Vision Zero concept is the basis of innovative technologies on the way to the highest safety in industry

In the Russian Federation, hundreds of thousands of people carry out activities in the field of oil and gas production. Ensuring their health and safety is the main concern of employers, regulators, trade associations, industry groups and local communities. Work in this industry includes physical labor, round-the-clock operations, heavy machinery, hazardous chemicals, often remote locations and weather conditions. All these factors increase the risk of physical harm and determine the need for special protective measures.

Between absolutism and efficiency

The author develops two lines of argument. One line responds to specific objections advanced by his critics and seeks to show that these objections do not undermine the claim that the safety and feasibility standards are rationally justifiable alternatives to cost-justification. This Reply leads, however, with a second line of argument. We are all—consequentialists and non-consequentialists, philosophers and economists—imprisoned in the grip of the debate between utilitarianism and its critics that dominated political philosophy in the latter half of the 20th century. Classical utilitarianism fell into disfavor because its commitment to maximizing utility may justify depriving minorities of basic rights whenever such restrictions promote the greatest net happiness. The cure for this fault is to make some basic rights “absolute”— to rule out some trade-offs entirely. The legacy of this debate is the conclusion that we must choose between “absolutism” and “efficiency”. Unattractive as “efficient” trade-offs may be, the absolute prohibition of trade-offs is untenable when risks of physical harm are at issue. The safety and feasibility standards must fail because they are unacceptably absolutist. Once we shake ourselves free of this philosophical legacy we can see that these standards are standards for making trade-offs not for forbidding them and that the trade-offs they prescribe are plausible.

Between Absolutism and Efficiency: Reply to Professors Giestfeld, Grady, and Priel

This paper replies to Professor Geistfeld, Grady, and Priel’s excellent comments on my article Principles of Risk Imposition and the Priority of Avoiding Harm, 36 Revus J. for Const. Th. & Phil. of Law, 7 (2018). Both my article and Professor Geistfeld’s, Grady’s and Priel’s papers are part of the “Symposium: Risk Regulation and Tort Law, A discussion with Gregory C. Keating.” This Reply completes the Symposium. It attempts, briefly, to develop two lines of argument. One line attempts to respond to the specific criticism that Professors Geistfeld, Grady, and Priel, make in the Comments. In part, my specific replies seek to show that the safety and feasibility standards are rationally justifiable and genuine alternatives to cost-justification as a standard of precaution. Though I disagree with specific arguments of each of my critics, I believe that other claims they make are true, but do not undermine my arguments. For example, my arguments are compatible with Professor Grady’s correct observation that juries have the authority to reach verdicts inconsistent with the priority of avoiding harm — or any other theory of negligence. The merits of jury adjudication are not settled by any normative theory of reasonable care. I also agree with Professor Priel’s thesis that societies do not prioritize harm prevention. We are, I think, torn between competing moral outlooks and the standards of precaution that express those outlooks. My point is that standards of precaution which prioritize the avoidance of harm are rationally defensible, albeit in non-welfarist terms. I am likewise persuaded that Professor Geistfeld is correct to contend that welfare economics is compatible with non-welfarist normative commitments, but mistaken to think that measures such as willingness-to-pay and willingness-to-accept are the best ways to articulate the concrete implications of non-welfarist principles of precaution. This Reply leads, however, with a second line of argument. We are all — consequentialists and non-consequentialists, philosophers and economists — imprisoned in the grip of the debate between utilitarianism and its critics that dominated political philosophy in the latter half of the 20th century. Classical utilitarianism fell into disfavor because its commitment to maximizing utility is capable of justifying deprivations of basic rights for a minority whenever such restrictions promoted the greatest net happiness. The cure for this disease lay in making some basic rights “absolute” — in ruling out some trade-offs entirely. Applied to problems of risk imposition, the legacy of this debate is the assumption that we must choose between “absolutism” and “efficiency”. Unattractive as “efficient” trade-offs may be, the absolute prohibition of trade-offs is untenable when risks of physical harm are at issue. The safety and feasibility standards must fail because they are unacceptably absolutist. Once we shake ourselves free of this philosophical legacy we can see that this is not the case: these standards are standards for making trade-offs not for forbidding them and that the trade-offs they prescribe are perfectly plausible.

“I do my best to eat while I'm using”: Mapping the foodscapes of people living with HIV/AIDS who use drugs

Food insecurity can have negative health impacts on people who use drugs and are living with HIV/AIDS (PLHIV). These include both physical effects, including poorer health outcomes and morbidity, and also behaviors that can increase the risk of physical or psychological harm. This study used a semi-structured survey of 60 PLHIV who use drugs and service access mapping (SAM) interviews of a 20-person subset. The mapping helped to illustrate the daily routines used to access food and how food provision may contribute to both spaces of risk and care for a cohort of PLHIV who use drugs in Vancouver, BC. Study participants mapped the daily routes used to access food and discussed whether they felt that these routines increased their risk of physical harm. Additionally, study participants noted which food provision spaces provide social and health supports, which may protect against the nutritional and other harms of drug use. This study revealed that having access to space providing stable and reliable sources of food may protect individuals from experiencing certain risks associated with accessing food, including violence in food line-ups, having to enter areas of the city they considered unsafe or ‘triggering’ and engaging in risky behaviors in order to access food. These “spaces of care” not only provide nutrition but also social support and connections.

Catathrenia (Nocturnal Groaning): A Social Media Survey and State-of-the-Art Review.

Catathrenia is an underrecognized nocturnal vocalization phenomenon that can be a source of perplexity to patients, bed partners, and medical providers. Catathrenia is distinct from both sleep talking (a parasomnia with loud talking during sleep) and snoring (noise due to vibration of upper airway soft tissues related to variations in airway resistance). The objective of this review is to provide an evidence-based resource to help the practitioner reliably evaluate and manage patients with this condition. Data were gathered from: (1) PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar; and (2) catathrenia social media groups (Yahoo and Facebook). Data collected were (1) 15 case reports and 17 case series describing 191 patients with catathrenia; (2) questionnaires from 47 catathrenia subjects; (3) 5 audio files. Catathrenia is a noise produced during sleep (distinct from snoring) with identifiable harmonics, a computable main frequency, and high-decibel intensity that involves active adduction and vibration of the vocal cords during expiration. The quality of groaning in catathrenia is monotone, and often presents with a morose or sexual connotation, causing a significant social problem for patients. Although there is no association with risk of physical harm, catathrenia does present a significant disturbance to the bed partner and has been associated with subjective impairments to sleep quality, including unrefreshing sleep and fatigue. Polysomnography can be useful if performed properly to confirm the diagnosis and to evaluate for comorbid sleep disturbances, such as obstructive sleep apnea or parasomnia. Directions for further research could involve consideration of deep breathing exercises, yoga, meditation, or myofunctional therapy to help abate symptoms.

Zika virus and pregnant women: A psychological approach

Zika virus presents risk of physical harm to pregnant women, but the fear of infection is also affecting women around the world. There is a gap in the research on Zika virus in the areas involving the impact on the psychosocial well-being of pregnant women. Therefore, this study is aimed at the investigation of the psychosocial adjustment of pregnant women to the risks of Zika virus infection during pregnancy. We investigated 14 pregnant women who were classified in three different groups: six in the first trimester, five in the second trimester and three in the third trimester, aged from 28 to 40 years (33.43 ± 3.76 years). Content analysis was used to interpret data. Our results show that the psychosocial adjustment of participants was significantly negative and included five aspects: (1) negative feelings, (2) changes in family planning, (3) adopting new customs (avoiding places of risk, use of specific clothes and use of repellent), (4) changed attitudes regarding body image and (5) feeling of external demand regarding prevention. The fear of Zika virus infection and all its associated risks have a negative biopsychosocial impact on the pregnant women in this study.

Alcohol-related collateral harm, the unseen dimension? Survey of students aged 16–24 in Southern England

Aim: To ascertain young adults’ experience of alcohol-related collateral harm (ARC harm). Methods: An online survey collected quantitative and qualitative data from a convenience sample of students (N = 450) aged 16–24 in Southern England. Questions and analyses focused on harms they had experienced as a result of alcohol consumption by other people in their family or social circle. Findings: Sixty-four percent of the participants experienced ARC harm, including 50% of non-drinkers. In logistic regression analysis, ARC harms were associated with being female (OR = 1.62, 95% CI 1.01–2.62) family members who drank every day (OR = 2.65, 95% CI 1.49–4.69) being influenced by others’ drinking (OR = 2.03, 95% CI 1.32–3.10) being older (OR = 2.61 95% CI 1.57–4.34). No significant associations were found with high or low self-reported levels of alcohol consumption. Using qualitative descriptors, the ARC harms reported were classified into a novel taxonomy comprising eight categories: nuisance/frustration/exasperation, tolerance/adjustment/accommodation, pressure into unwanted situations, unsought/inappropriate responsibility, psychological harm, physical harm/acute risk of physical harm, relationship harm, and undisclosed harm. Conclusions: A high level of ARC harm was reported and experience of ARC harm was linked to several predictors. Further work is required to validate the proposed taxonomy, and to promote consideration of the phenomenon of ARC harm in alcohol policy.

Novel biomarkers of coronary microvascular disease.

Coronary microvascular disease in the absence of myocardial diseases has traditionally been diagnosed through coronary reactivity testing in the cardiac catheterization laboratory. Compared with invasive procedures, blood-based biomarkers may have reduced cost, less risk of physical harm and greater accessibility, making them ideal for an outpatient management strategy. There are a variety of biomarkers available with potential utility in the management of microvascular disease; however, none have yet been extensively validated or established in this clinical patient population.

Physical Restraint – the Gender Divide

Aim To evaluate patterns of physical restraint across a mental health trust. Introduction Physical restraint has historically been used to manage mental health crises; however there has been a recent trend for reducing this, not least because physical restraint is associated with the risk of physical harm to patients, but also psychological harm and is potentially damaging to therapeutic relationships. A commonly cited reason is violent or aggressive behaviour; however other contributory factors may play a role. We set out to evaluate the characteristics of restrained patients to see if patterns emerged that would explain this. Method Retrospective review of monthly trust-wide restraint data from 1 January – 30 June 2014. Anonomysed data was collected and analyzed using Excel. All restraints documented through the official reporting system in this period was included. Patient characteristics and reasons for restraint were evaluated. Results The majority of restraints across the trust occurred in Acute Services with 24% on a single ward for Older Adults. 20.7% was recorded on the women's medium secure ward. Within Secure Services there was a significant gender difference in the use of restraint; 94.5% in female wards and 4.5% in male wards. Significant differences in the reasons for restraint were noted. Female patients were mostly restrained for anti-social behaviour or self-harm and male patients for physical assaults. Implications Better understanding of reasons and patterns relating to use of restraints is likely to assist in developing improved management plans to reduce the overall use of physical restraint in women's services.

COMT Val/Met genotype associations with treatment response from a randomized clinical trial of CBT4CBT

significance (r=0.125). In contrast, scores on the Mystical Experience Questionnaire correlated moderately highly with spiritual significance ratings (r=0.658) but not with degree of difficulty (r=0.198). Consistent with known effects of psilocybin, participants endorsed visual effects (61%) and auditory (23%) and visual (21%) synesthesia. Anomalous experiences were endorsed, including: interactionswithentities/personsnotphysicallypresent (29%), convincing experiences of prior lives (10%), and experiences of Jamais vu (17%). 11% reported that they put themselves or others at risk for physical harm during the experience. Conclusions: Participants completed a survey about their most challenging experience after psilocybin. Scores of challenging experience and mystical experience showed different patterns of correlations. Visual and auditory effects and unusual phenomenology were reported. Financial support: NIH T32DA007209 and R01DA003889, and Heffter Research Institute.

Mediated Medication-Risk Messages: A Content Analysis of Print News Coverage of Increased Medication Risk

The social amplification of risk framework approaches risk as a combination of the objective risk of physical harm and the process through which individuals interpret the hazard. Within that framework, this study included a content analysis of media coverage of a changed risk profile of prescription medication. Considering frequency of news coverage as one cue to audience attention, results indicate that veterans as an at-risk population garner more media attention than children as an at-risk population. The concept of amplification was associated with an amplifying lead, the use of narrative, the identification of children as the at-risk population, and article length.

Acceptable and unacceptable risk: balancing everyday risk by family members of older cognitively impaired adults who live alone

For individuals providing care for older people the issue of risk is a well-established concern, especially in the context of the older person's declining functional abilities and cognitive skills. Recently in expert discussions of health care, the issue of risk has been subsumed under the discourse of patient safety with the assumption that risk is intrinsic to certain situations and therefore can be measured by professionals and ultimately prevented. Less attention has been paid to the risk perceptions of older persons and their families and friends. We undertook the study on which this article is based in Toronto, Ontario, Canada between 2005 and 2007. We used grounded theory to identify the process whereby family and friends recognise and balance risk of older persons with cognitive impairment who live alone. Twenty pairs of older adults with cognitive impairment and their primary family members or friends were interviewed using in-depth, semi-structured interviews. The model of acceptable and unacceptable risk began with family members' perceptions that the older person was living with an acceptable level of risk, but then noticing red flags that eventually led to the perception of unacceptable risk. They employed risk-balancing strategies such as making changes in the physical environment, increasing surveillance, becoming more involved in the older person's care or redefining their definitions of acceptable risk in order to return the perceived risk to an acceptable level. Meanings of risk were constantly redefined as new situations arose and risk-balancing strategies were implemented. Throughout family members constantly balanced the risks of physical harm with the risks of undermining the older person's independence and self-esteem.

CRIMINAL CHILD NEGLECT AND THE "FREE RANGE KID": IS OVERPROTECTIVE PARENTING THE NEW STANDARD OF CARE?

In the last generation, American parenting norms have shifted strongly in favor of Intensive Parenting, placing particular emphasis on protecting children from risks of harm. Recently, a backlash to this trend has emerged. “Free Range” parenting is based on the concern that coddling children through overprotection inhibits the development of their independence and responsibility. Indeed, a growing body of literature suggests that parental overreaction to remote and even illusory risks of physical harm is exposing children to far more serious risks to their well-being and development. But the powerful influence of media has sensationalized the risks to children, skewing popular perceptions of the genuine risks children face and of what constitutes a reasonable or appropriate response to such risks. Consequently, individuals who do not buy into Intensive Parenting norms, including those from different cultural and socio-economic backgrounds, may be subjecting themselves to criminal prosecution for child neglect and endangerment. The criminal statutes are, for the most part, very vague, leaving these prosecutions—which amount to little more than one person’s second-guessing the parenting choices of another—in the discretion of prosecutors, who bring the charges, and of juries, who render verdicts. If prosecutors and jurors share the media-fed misperceptions of risk, overprotective parenting becomes the de facto legal standard of care. To counter this possibility, it is necessary to define criminal child neglect with far greater specificity and to allow defendants to introduce expert testimony to put the actual risks to children, as well as the downside risk of the precautions themselves, in perspective. Absent such changes, fear of prosecution may effectively force parents to conform to the overprotective parenting norm, to the detriment of society, families, and the children themselves.