Risk Factors For Myopia Research Articles

Investigation and analysis of the status of myopia and related behavior in children and adolescents in Northeast Sichuan.

In this study, we examined the current status of myopia among primary and secondary school children in northeastern Sichuan to analyze the factors connected to myopia and provide data support and a theoretical foundation for the prevention and control of myopia. Using a cross-sectional study and a comprehensive sampling survey, 34,138 students aged 5-19 years were screened for refraction in 22 primary and secondary schools in Langzhong, and 4000 behavioral questionnaires were delivered at random. After evaluation and rational problem-solving, a total of 3764 valid questionnaires were obtained. SPSS 23.0 statistical software was used for data analysis. The percentage of myopia among primary and secondary school students in Langzhong was 65.61%, with female students having a higher rate than male students ( P < 0.05); 52.81% of primary school students, 86.26% of secondary school students, and 88.17% of high school students had myopia. The incidence of myopia detection increased with school age ( P < 0.001), indicating a correlation between age and myopia prevalence. The prevalence of myopia was mainly low (40.53%) and moderate myopia (19.89%). The prevalence of high myopia (5.19%) was relatively high. The prevalence of myopia among female students (5.54%) was greater than that in male students ( P < 0.05) and increased with age ( P < 0.001). The proportion of students who wore eyeglasses was 24.36%, with a larger proportion of female students (25.93%) than male students (22.61%) ( P < 0.001). In addition, the rate of eyeglass use increased with school age ( P < 0.001). A logistic regression analysis revealed that higher grade point averages, female gender, and long-term usage of electronic items were risk factors for myopia. The results of the questionnaire survey revealed that students in this region were under immense pressure to perform well academically, spent a lot of time engaged in near-work activities, and had a low rate of myopia awareness; 24.43% of the students had not had a vision examination in the previous year, indicating that parents did not pay sufficient attention to eye health. The incidence of myopia among children and teenagers is high in Northeast Sichuan, and the outlook for addressing the problem is bleak. Therefore, it is critical to improve vision monitoring and eye health education.

Prevalence of and risk factors for myopia among urban and rural children in Northeast China: protocol for a school-based cross-sectional study

IntroductionThe worldwide prevalence of myopia is high and continues to increase. In this study, a school screening programme for myopia will be implemented using the whole-process information method. The purpose...

A Mendelian randomization study on the causal relationship between smoking, alcohol consumption, and the development of myopia and astigmatism.

The influence of environmental factors like smoking and alcohol on myopia and astigmatism is controversial. However, due to ethical concerns, alternative study designs are urgently needed to assess causal inference, as mandatory exposure to cigarettes and alcohol is unethical. Following comprehensive screenings, 326 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) related to myopia and astigmatism were included in the dataset. To validate the causal association between exposures such as cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, and coffee intake, and outcomes namely astigmatism and myopia, five regression models were employed. These models encompassed MR-Egger regression, random-effects inverse-variance weighted (IVW), weighted median estimator (WME), weighted model, and simple model. The instrumental variables utilized in these analyses were the aforementioned SNPs. Apply Cochran's Q test to determine heterogeneity of SNPs; if heterogeneity exists, focus on IVW model results. The IVW model showed a 1.379-fold increase in the risk of astigmatism (OR = 1.379, 95%CI 0.822~2.313, P = 0.224) and a 0.963-fold increase in the risk of myopia (OR = 0.963, 95%CI 0.666~1.393, P = 0.841) for each unit increase in smoking. For each unit increase in coffee intake, the risk of astigmatism increased 1.610-fold (OR = 1.610, 95%CI 0.444~5.835, P = 0.469) and the risk of myopia increased 0.788-fold (OR = 0.788, 95%CI 0.340~1.824, P = 0.578). For each additional unit of alcohol consumption, the risk of astigmatism increased by 0.763-fold (OR = 0.763, 95%CI 0.380~1.530, P = 0.446), and none of the differences were statistically significant. However, for each unit of alcohol consumption, the risk of myopia increased by 1.597 times, and the difference was statistically significant (OR = 1.597, 95%CI 1.023~2.493, P = 0.039). The findings indicate that alcohol consumption is a risk factor for myopia but smoking and coffee intake do not affect its development. Additionally, there is no association between smoking, alcohol consumption, coffee intake, and the risk of astigmatism.

Myopia, what causes it and can it be avoided?

Myopia (short‐sightedness or near‐sightedness) is a condition of refraction where vision to distant is impaired. Axial elongation of the eye is the main anatomical cause of myopia.The prevalence of myopia has increased alarmingly fast globally. The estimation of WHO report was that in 2020 27% of world's population would be myopic, and if there will be no changes in the trend then by 2050 there would be 2.56 billion myopic people worldwide. Highest prevalence of myopia has been reported in many South and East Asian countries, where about 80% of the school leavers are myopic. Parental myopia increases the risks of myopia in their children, two myopic parents more than one. Genetic studies have been able to explain only small part of myopia, nor have been able to explain the differences in the prevalence between populations. Myopia relates to higher education, near work and higher occupational status and is mare rare in urban environment and in occupations where people work outdoors. In children myopia usually develop after they had begun attending school and is associated with more time spent on reading and near work and less time on outdoor activities.The major public health concerns connected with myopia are related to its complications. Myopia has become one of the main causes of vision loss due to complications, such as retinal detachment, macular degeneration and haemorrhage, choroidal neovascularization, and open angle glaucoma. The higher myopia is the higher is the risk of these complications. In countries where myopia is common, it is already a significant cause of low vision and blindness.In a Finnish study prevalence of myopia in 7‐ and 11‐year‐olds, was 0.5% and 3.3%, respectively, if daily near work did not exceed 1 h. Multiple regression model adjusted by sex, parental myopia and time spent outdoors, showed that 1 h increase in near work increased the risk of myopia 47% (95% CI 1.099–1.984, P = 0.010) and 35% (CI 1.170–1.548, P &lt; 0.001), in 7‐ and 11‐year‐olds, respectively. Each hour spent outdoors adjusted by sex, parental myopia and time spent outdoors decreased their same risk by 24% (95% CI 0.533–1050, P = 0.096 and 0.648–0.000, P = 0.001, respectively). Higher prevalence of myopia in girls could mainly be explained by their more time spent in near work and less time outdoors.Plenty of long‐term near viewing, and short viewing distance, combined with low amount of time outdoors are risk factors for myopia. Avoiding these factors is more important the younger the child is. It is recommended that the daily time spent outdoors in children should be at least equal to near work time. Early school starting age, increases the risk of myopia and high myopia, and consequently risk for myopia related complications. Great educational stress in young children should be avoided.

Myopia risk factors. Update 2023

The aetiology of myopia has been extensively studied in the past decades. It is estimated that almost 30% of uncorrectable vision impairment could be attributable to myopic related disease. The latest research confirms that several environmental risks factors are important myopia determinants. More evidence was published on the effect of COVID‐19 lockdown on myopia. Increased near work and digital screen time and decreased outdoor time remained after the lockdowns and changes in myopia prevalence and progression were reported. Behaviours that contribute to a higher risk of myopia persisted post lockdowns leading to children with higher myopic risk profiles. Outdoor programmes remain as an important strategy to reduce myopia incidence. Recent evidence does not support the role of near work breaks such as 20‐20‐20 rule as a treatment option to reduce digital eye strain. Nevertheless, there is insufficient evidence to determine if this can be an effective treatment to reduce myopia incidence or myopia progression. Research into the influence of diet on myopia development has been mixed. New factors have emerged from genetic studies showing that increased adiponectin levels are protective against myopia. High haemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) levels may be associated with increased risk of myopia. Thus, the role of regular exercise and healthy diet should be further explored as potential strategies to prevent myopia onset or delay the age of myopia onset in future research studies. There is a growing body of evidence on the role of sleep and body mass index as risks factors for myopia, although further research is still necessary to confirm those factors and its association with myopia. Ongoing research should continue to identify risk factors for myopia development. Better‐designed studies are necessary to identify more efficient ways to prevent myopia and decrease myopia progression.

Causal relationships between height, screen time, physical activity, sleep and myopia: univariable and multivariable Mendelian randomization.

This study aims to investigate the independent causal relation between height, screen time, physical activity, sleep and myopia. Instrumental variables (IVs) for exposures and outcome were obtained from the largest publicly available genome-wide association studies (GWAS) databases. First, we performed a bidirectional univariate MR analysis using primarily the inverse variance weighted method (IVW) with height, screen time, physical activity and sleep as the exposure and myopia as the outcome to investigate the causal relationship between exposures and myopia. Sensitivity analysis was used to demonstrate its robustness. Then the multivariable MR (MVMR) and MR-based mediation approach was further used to estimate the mediating effect of potential confounders (education and time outdoors) on causality. The results of univariate MR analysis showed that taller height (OR = 1.009, 95% CI = 1.005-1.012, p = 3.71 × 10-7), longer time on computer (OR = 1.048, 95% CI = 1.029-1.047, p = 3.87 × 10-7) and less moderate physical activity (OR = 0.976, 95% CI = 0.96-0.991 p = 2.37 × 10-3) had a total effect on the increased risk of developing myopia. Meanwhile our results did not have sufficient evidence to support the causal relationship between chronotype (p = 0.637), sleep duration (p = 0.952) and myopia. After adjusting for education, only taller height remains an independent risk factor for myopia. After adjusting for education, the causal relationship between height, screen and myopia still had statistical significance. A reverse causal relationship was not found in our study. Most of the sensitivity analyses showed consistent results with those of the IVW method. Our MR study revealed that genetically predicted taller height, longer time on computer, less moderate physical activity increased the risk of myopia. After full adjustment for confounders, only height remained independently associated with myopia. As a complement to observational studies, the results of our analysis provide strong evidence for the improvement of myopia risk factors and provide a theoretical basis for future measures to prevent and control myopia in adolescents.

Retracted: Refractive Errors and Risk Factors for Myopia in Primary School Students in Urumqi

Retracted: Refractive Errors and Risk Factors for Myopia in Primary School Students in Urumqi

National estimate and associated factors of myopia among schoolchildren in Ethiopia: A systematic review and meta-analysis

IntroductionMyopia is a global public health concern that has a significant socioeconomic and psychological impact on schoolchildren. If Myopic patients are not detected early, they are exposed to retinal detachment, cataracts, and glaucoma. There have been previous studies conducted in Ethiopia, but there is significant inconsistency among studies. Hence, the aim of this study was to provide a single figure as well as associated factors for Myopia among Ethiopian schoolchildren. MethodThe national and international databases and gray literature were searched for important research articles. This review included school-based cross-sectional studies that were reported in English. The data were extracted using Microsoft word and exported to Stata™ Version 17.0 statistical software for further management and analysis .The presence of heterogeneity was checked using Cochrane Q test via fixed effects model and presented by forest plots with 95% CI. Due to the presence of substantial heterogeneity, I2 test using random effects model was computed to estimate the effect size. The existing heterogeneity among studies was explained by regional difference. To identify factors associated with myopia, meta regression was computed and significant factors was reported using OR with 95% CI. ResultsIn this systematic review and meta-analysis, 12 studies with a total of 9688 schoolchildren were included. The national estimate of myopia among schoolchildren in Ethiopia was 6.49% (95%CI: 4.86, 8.12). Having family history of myopia (OR: 9.18, 95%CI: 3.5,24.02) and being female (OR: 0.94, 95% CI: 0.50, 0.98) were the identified factors associated with myopia. ConclusionMyopia is one of the most prevalent childhood health condition in Ethiopia, which affects about one in every fourteen schoolchildren. Schoolchildren who had family history of myopia and being female were the identified risk factors of myopia among schoolchildren. Clinical and public engagement activities are needed to address the burden of myopia.

Global risk factor analysis of myopia onset in children: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

This work aimed to comprehensively assess the risk factors affecting myopia in children to develop more effective prevention and treatment strategies. To this end, data from database were employed to assess the relationship between the incidence of myopia and its risk factors. We searched eight databases online in June 2022. Cohort studies were included that measured the connection between risk factors and myopia. Eligibility was not restricted by language. The Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) was used to measure the risk of bias and conducted GRADE evaluation to determine the certainty of evidence. Potential risk factors with positive or negative results were seen. Inplasy Registration: https://inplasy.com/inplasy-2022-4-0109/. Evidence that risk factors for myopia are mixed, comprising both positive (20) and null (17) findings. In 19 cohort studies on 3578 children, girls were more likely to develop myopia (RR: 1.28 [1.22-1.35]). Myopia can occur at any age, from early childhood to late adulthood. Children whose parents had myopia were more likely to develop myopia. Longer outdoor activities time (RR: 0.97 [0.95-0.98]) and less near-work time (RR: 1.05 [1.02-1.07]) appeared to be significantly decrease the incidence of myopia. Children with lower SE, longer AL, a lower magnitude of positive relative accommodation, worse presenting visual acuity, deeper anterior chamber, and thinner crystalline lens may be related to myopia onset. The burden of myopia in underprivileged countries is higher than in developed countries (RR: 5.28 [2.06-13.48]). The quality of evidence for the evaluated factors was moderate to low or very low. Genetic factors, environmental factors (such as excessive use of electronic products, and poor study habits) and lifestyle factors (such as lack of outdoor activities, poor nutrition, etc.) are the main risk factors for myopia in children. Myopia prevention strategies should be designed based on environmental factors, gender, parental myopia and eye indicators in order to explore a lifestyle that is more conducive to the eye health of children.

Risk Factors for Myopia: A Review.

Due to the myopia prevalence increase worldwide, this study aims to establish the most relevant risk factors associated with its development and progression. A review search was carried out using PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus databases to identify the main myopia risk factors. The inclusion criteria for the articles were those related to the topic, carried out in subjects from 5 to 30 years, published between January 2000 and May 2023, in English, and with the full text available. Myopia etiology has proven to be associated with both genetic and environmental factors as well as with gene-environment interaction. The risk of developing myopia increases in children with myopic parents (one parent ×2 times, two parents ×5 times). Regarding environmental factors, education is the main risk factor correlated with myopia prevalence increase. Further, several studies found that shorter distance (<30 cm) and longer time spent (>30 min) for near work increase the risk of myopia. Meanwhile, increased outdoor activity (>40 min/day) has been shown to be a key factor in reducing myopia incidence. In conclusion, the interventional strategy suggested so far to reduce myopia incidence is an increase in time outdoors and a reduction in the time spent performing near-work tasks.

Development of the University of Houston near work, environment, activity, and refraction (UH NEAR) survey for myopia

ABSTRACT Clinical Relevance There is a need to better elucidate demographic and behavioural factors that are contributing to the rising prevalence of myopia. Doing so will aid in developing evidence-based recommendations for behavioural modifications to prevent onset and slow progression of myopia in children. Background The contributions of environmental and behavioural factors in myopia remain unclear. The goal of this work was to provide a standardised survey to better understand risk factors for myopia. Methods Development of the survey was carried out in 4 phases. In phase 1, three methods (direct, lay terms, and indirect) of parental reporting for the presence of myopia in their child were investigated through a questionnaire (N = 109) to determine sensitivity and specificity. The best method determined from phase 1 was used in phase 2, where questions regarding demographics, ocular history, and visual behaviour were compiled and refined. In phase 3, the survey was administered to focus groups of parents (N = 9). In phase 4, a scoring system was developed. Results The highest sensitivity for parental reporting for myopia of their child was the indirect method (0.84), and the lowest sensitivity was the direct method (0.41). The highest specificity was the direct method (0.86), once excluding the ‘do not know’ responses, and the lowest specificity was the indirect method (0.53). The direct method yielded a 53.2% ‘do not know’ response rate, 50.5% for the lay method, and 1.8% for the indirect method. Time to complete the survey was 10:09 ± 2:45 minutes. Conclusion This study provides a comprehensive and up-to-date myopia risk factor survey that can be utilised by researchers and clinicians. Parents found the survey to be easy to understand and relatively quick to answer, and the scoring system allows quantification of behaviours across different categories using provided equations.

Clouclip combined with a questionnaire on the influence factors of myopia in children.

To evaluate eye use behavior in myopic and non-myopic children objectively using Clouclip M2 device and subjectively using questionnaire and compare the results. The study also aimed to assess the relationships between ocular biometric parameters and refractive status. Clouclip M2 was used in monitoring eye use behavior and visual environment in children aged 9-11 years. The participants were monitored for 7 days. On the eighth day, data stored in the device were collected, relevant eye examination were conducted and survey questionnaire was administered. The paired sample t-test was used to compare the eye use behavior obtained objectively and subjectively. The relationships between ocular biometric parameters and refractive status were assessed using the Pearson's Correlation analysis. Spherical equivalent refraction was significantly correlated with axial length, axial length to corneal radius, anterior chamber depth, lens thickness, and corneal radius (P < 0.05). The average time per day spent on near work, the maximum time for single near work, and the average near working distance were significantly lower, and the average total time spent on outdoor activities was significantly longer as determined by questionnaire method than that found using Clouclip M2. Logistic regression analysis revealed that prolonged near work, shorter working distance, presence of parental myopia, and lesser outdoor activities were significant risk factors for myopia. The childhood myopia is influenced by eye use behavior, eye use environment, and parental myopia. Results from this study further support that biometric and optical parameters of the eye determine refractive status. Being an objective method, Clouclip M2 provides an independent eye use behavior data which potentially are more reliable than obtained from subjective method. Our study provided a theoretical basis for myopia prevention and control in clinical practice.

Pseudomyopia as an independent risk factor for myopia onset: a prospective cohort study among school-aged children

AimTo investigate whether pseudomyopia is an independent risk factor for myopia onset based on a population-based cohort study.MethodsNon-myopic children were recruited from schools in rural and urban settings of Shangdong...

Factors associated with myopia in 19-year-old adult men in Korea between 2014 and 2020

Numerous environmental factors that influence myopia have been studied, but only few factors have been definitively identified. We examined factors influencing myopia using data from 2014 to 2020 physical examinations received from the Korean Military Manpower Administration. We used the Cochran–Armitage trend test to investigate the annual prevalence of myopia and high myopia. To determine risk factors for myopia, logistic regression was performed. The data of 2,215,126 19-year-old Korean men were examined. The myopia and high myopia prevalences showed significant annual increases; in 2020, these prevalences were 58.9% and 18.0%, respectively. The myopia prevalence was high when the birth season was spring, education level was high, height was small, weight and body mass index (BMI) were low (< 18.5 kg/m2), and color vision was normal (all, p < 0.05). The high myopia prevalence was high when the birth season was spring, education level was high, height was tall, weight and BMI were low (< 18.5 kg/m2), and color vision was normal (all, p < 0.05). The prevalence of myopia and high myopia in this population is increasing annually. The risk of both conditions increased when the birth season was spring, education level was high, BMI was low, color vision was normal, and diabetes was present.

A multiethnic genome-wide analysis of 19,420 individuals identifies novel loci associated with axial length and shared genetic influences with refractive error and myopia.

Introduction: Long axial length (AL) is a risk factor for myopia. Although family studies indicate that AL has an important genetic component with heritability estimates up to 0.94, there have been few reports of AL-associated loci. Methods: Here, we conducted a multiethnic genome-wide association study (GWAS) of AL in 19,420 adults of European, Latino, Asian, and African ancestry from the Genetic Epidemiology Research on Adult Health and Aging (GERA) cohort, with replication in a subset of the Consortium for Refractive Error and Myopia (CREAM) cohorts of European or Asian ancestry. We further examined the effect of the identified loci on the mean spherical equivalent (MSE) within the GERA cohort. We also performed genome-wide genetic correlation analyses to quantify the genetic overlap between AL and MSE or myopia risk in the GERA European ancestry sample. Results: Our multiethnic GWA analysis of AL identified a total of 16 genomic loci, of which 5 are novel. We found that all AL-associated loci were significantly associated with MSE after Bonferroni correction. We also found that AL was genetically correlated with MSE (rg = -0.83; SE, 0.04; p = 1.95 × 10-89) and myopia (rg = 0.80; SE, 0.05; p = 2.84 × 10-55). Finally, we estimated the array heritability for AL in the GERA European ancestry sample using LD score regression, and found an overall heritability estimate of 0.37 (s.e. = 0.04). Discussion: In this large and multiethnic study, we identified novel loci, associated with AL at a genome-wide significance level, increasing substantially our understanding of the etiology of AL variation. Our results also demonstrate an association between AL-associated loci and MSE and a shared genetic basis between AL and myopia risk.

Association between age at menarche and risk of myopia in the United States: NHANES 1999-2008.

We evaluate the effect of menarche on myopia in women in the United States (US). A cross-sectional survey and examination were conducted using data from the 1999-2008 US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), and 8,706 women aged ≥20 years (95% confidence interval [CI], 44.23 to 45.37) were enrolled. Characteristics were compared between nonmyopic and myopic participants. Univariable and multivariable logistic regression analysis was performed to evaluate the risk factors for myopia. A minimum p-value approach was used to estimate the cut-off point for age at menarche. The prevalence of myopia was 32.96%. Mean spherical equivalent (SE) were -0.81 diopters (95% CI, -0.89 to -0.73) and the mean age of menarche was 12.67 years (95% CI, 12.62 to 12.72). In the crude logistic regression model, age (odd ratio [OR] 0.98), height (OR, 1.02), astigmatism (OR, 1.57) (all p < 0.0001), age at menarche (OR, 0.95; p = 0.0005), white ethnicity, being born in the US, higher level of education, and higher annual household income (all p trend <0.0001) were significantly associated with myopia. 1-year increments in age at menarche was associated with a 4% decrease in the risk of myopia after adjusting for age, height, body mass index (BMI), ethnicity, and astigmatism (OR, 0.96; 95% CI, 0.93 to 0.99, p = 0.0288). The cut-off value for age at menarche was 15 years by the maximum chi-square test (p < 0.0001). Age at menarche may attribute to myopia progression, along with other environmental and individual risk factors.

Effects of behaviors and surrounding environment on myopia before and during the COVID-19 pandemic: a longitudinal analysis of children and adolescents in China.

To investigate the relationship between related factors and visual acuity of Chinese school students before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Chinese students from primary and secondary schools were included from the Chinese National Surveys on Students' Constitution and Health CNSSCH (2019). A total of 1496 participants completed follow-ups in June and December 2020, respectively. Generalized estimating equations were used to test the differences in visual environment. Logistic regression models were utilized to examine the roles of behaviors and surrounding environment changes associated with myopia before and during the pandemic. The prevalence of myopia was 47.7%, 55.6%, and 57.2% in baseline and two follow-ups, respectively. Significant differences existed for gender, learning level, and region (all P < 0.05). The proportion of new myopia and myopia torsion was the highest in the primary schools. Multivariate logistic regression analysis found that screen time ≥ 4h/d (OR = 2.717), poor eye habits (OR = 1.477), insufficient lighting for studying at night (OR = 1.779), desk or roof lamps only (OR = 1.388), and poor sleep quality (OR = 4.512) were the risk factors for myopia (all P < 0.05), and eye exercises (OR = 0.417), milk intake (OR = 0.758), and eggs intake (OR = 0.735) were the protective factors for myopia (all P < 0.05). Prevalence of myopia increased among Chinese students before and during the COVID-19. It is necessary to pay more attention to the pupils' visual acuity, especially in primary school students, in the future. The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10389-023-01900-w.

The 18th International Myopia Conference 2022 in Rotterdam, The Netherlands.

The 18th International Myopia Conference 2022 in Rotterdam, The Netherlands.

Prevalence of Myopia and Its Associated Risk Factors Among Children Attending a Tertiary Hospital in Saudi Arabia.

This study serves as a tool for optometrists and ophthalmologists to reinforce adherence to several preventive factors, which may decrease the incidence of myopia, and avoidance of risk factors by multiple means including education during hospital visits. It also provides insight into who should be screened and tailored screening programs for children. While studies assessing the prevalence of myopia in Saudi Arabia have contradicting results, only a few studies have evaluated the risk factors of myopia and the effect of using electronic devices on its occurrence. Thus, this study aimed to determine the prevalence of myopia and associated risk factors, among children attending an ophthalmology clinic in King Abdulaziz Medical City, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. A cross-sectional study was conducted. A total of 182 patients aged < 14 years were selected using convenient sampling. Direct assessment of the refraction was performed in the clinic, and a questionnaire was completed by the child's parent. Of 182 patients who met the inclusion criteria, 40.7% had myopia. Myopia was more common in boys (56.8%) than in girls (43.2%), with a median age of 8.7 years. Using multivariate regression analysis, only age (eight years and above) (OR=2.15, CI=1.12-4.12, P= 0.03), and family history of myopia (OR= 5.83, CI= 2.82-12.05, P= 0.001) were significant predictors of myopia in children. Other variables (e.g., sex, and use of laptops, computers, smartphones/tablets, or TV) were not statistically significant. This study did not show a statistically significant association between using electronic devices and the onset and progression of myopia among children. Studies with a larger sample size are required to further investigate this association and assess other potential risk factors.

The Incidence and Severity of Myopia in the Population of Medical Students and Its Dependence on Various Demographic Factors and Vision Hygiene Habits

(1) Background: Myopia is one of the leading causes of visual impairment. Visual work and usage of electronic devices are known risk factors of myopia. Many education systems were forced to apply online and hybrid teaching methods, to reduce the number of new cases of COVID-19. Medical students are a population well-known for intense visual work in the form of learning; (2) Methods: Visual acuity and refractive error were measured in the population of medical students. Participants also filled out the survey that included their population characteristic and their habits related to the hygiene of vision; (3) Results: We found a correlation between the age of the first diagnosis of myopia and current values of refractive error. The majority of participants believe that the COVID-19 pandemic had an impact on the health of their vision. Among methods of studying, usage of the computer screen was less preferred by myopic students; (4) Conclusions: In the population of medical school students in Eastern Poland, visual acuity was lower than 1.0 in 232 (52.97%) in the right eye and 234 (53.42%) in the left eye. Early recognition of refractive error has influenced its current values. Among methods of studying, usage of the computer screen was less preferred by myopic students. More population-based studies should focus on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the health of vision.