Risk Factors In India Research Articles

Disparities in Prevalence of Cardiometablic Risk Factors in Rural, Urban-Poor, and Urban-Middle Class Women in India.

ObjectiveUrbanization is an important determinant of cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk. To determine location-based differences in CVD risk factors in India we performed studies among women in rural, urban-poor and urban middle-class locations.MethodsPopulation-based cross-sectional studies in rural, urban-poor, and urban-middle class women (35–70y) were performed at multiple sites. We evaluated 6853 women (rural 2616, 5 sites; urban-poor 2008, 4 sites; urban middle-class 2229, 11 sites) for socioeconomic, lifestyle, anthropometric and biochemical risk factors. Descriptive statistics are reported.ResultsMean levels of body mass index (BMI), waist circumference, waist-hip ratio (WHR), systolic BP, fasting glucose and cholesterol in rural, urban-poor and urban-middle class women showed significantly increasing trends (ANOVAtrend, p <0.001). Age-adjusted prevalence of diabetes and risk factors among rural, urban-poor and urban-middle class women, respectively was, diabetes (2.2, 9.3, 17.7%), overweight BMI ≥25 kg/m2 (22.5, 45.6, 57.4%), waist >80 cm (28.3, 63.4, 61.9%), waist >90 cm (8.4, 31.4, 38.2%), waist hip ratio (WHR) >0.8 (60.4, 90.7, 88.5), WHR>0.9 (13.0, 44.3, 56.1%), hypertension (31.6, 48.2, 59.0%) and hypercholesterolemia (13.5, 27.7, 37.4%) (Mantel Haenszel X2 ptrend <0.01). Inverse trend was observed for tobacco use (41.6, 19.6, 9.4%). There was significant association of hypertension, hypercholesterolemia and diabetes with overweight and obesity (adjusted R2 0.89–0.99).ConclusionsThere are significant location based differences in cardiometabolic risk factors in India. The urban-middle class women have the highest risk compared to urban-poor and rural.

Prevalence of coronary heart disease in rural and urban Vellore: A repeat cross-sectional survey

BackgroundWith the increase of cardiovascular risk factors in India, the prevalence of coronary heart disease (CHD) is also expected to rise. A cross-sectional study in 2010–2012 assessed the prevalence and risk factors for CHD in urban and rural Vellore, Tamil Nadu. The secondary objectives were to compare the current prevalence with the prevalence of CHD in the same areas in 1991–1994. MethodsA cross-sectional survey was carried out among adults aged 30–64 years to determine the prevalence of CHD (previously diagnosed disease, symptoms detected using Rose angina questionnaire, or ischemic changes on electrocardiography). The study used the WHO STEPS method in addition to the Rose angina questionnaire and resting electrocardiography and was conducted in nine clusters of a rural block in Vellore district and 48 wards of Vellore town. The results were compared with a similar study in the same area in 1991–1994. ResultsThe prevalence of CHD was 3.4% (95% CI: 1.6–5.2%) among rural men, 7.4% (95% CI: 4.7–10.1%) among rural women, 7.3% (95% CI: 5.7–8.9%) among urban men, and 13.4% (95% CI: 11.2–15.6%) among urban women in 2010–2012. The age-adjusted prevalence in rural women tripled and in urban women doubled, with only a slight increase among males, between 1991–1994 and 2010–2012. ConclusionsThe large increase in prevalence of CHD, among both pre- and post-menopausal females, suggests the need for further confirmatory studies and interventions for prevention in both rural and urban areas.

Prevalence of Risk Factors for the Metabolic Syndrome in a Global Perspective: A Brief Review

Metabolic syndrome refers to the clustering of a number of risk factors which have the potential to develop cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes mellitus and thus causing an increase in mortality rate. The prediction is that by 2020, there will be an increase by almost 75% in global cardiovascular disease prevalence and almost all of this increase will occur in developing countries. The prevalence of type 2 diabetes mellitus is also rapidly increasing all over the world at an alarming rate. In this paper, we have made an attempt to briefly review and compare the prevalence of metabolic syndrome risk factors in India as well as other regions of the world. We have also compared the metabolic syndrome risk factors for premenopausal and postmenopausal women for sample populations in India, Iran and Korea.

Heart failure in India: The INDUS (INDia Ukieri Study) study

Introduction: There are few data on heart failure (HF) burden and none available on the community prevalence of HF in India. We conducted a study aimed at determining the HF prevalence in a rural community as well as tertiary hospital care setting in North India. We also reviewed the existing literature regarding the estimated and projected prevalence of HF in India. Methodology: All adults (>20 years) with chronic breathlessness in six villages under a primary health care center in Northern India were identified and evaluated with standardized questionnaire and physical examination by trained health care workers. HF was diagnosed by standardized criteria and a transthoracic echocardiogram was performed in all subjects. In the hospital study, 500 consecutive patients presenting to our tertiary referral hospital were evaluated for the diagnosis of HF. For the systematic review, all published studies addressing HF or the burden of risk factors in India were identified. Projections for the absolute HF burden were made using local data and global studies of HF incidence, morbidity, and mortality. Results: Among the surveyed rural adult population of 10,163 patients, chronic breathlessness was present in 128 (1.3%). HF was present in 9% (n = 12), of which 67% (n = 8) had preserved left ventricular (LV) systolic function and 33% (n = 4) had LV systolic dysfunction. Therefore, the prevalence of HF in this general community was 1.2/1000. All patients with HF and preserved ejection fraction had poorly controlled hypertension. In the hospital study, of 500 consecutive patients, 20.4% had HF. Rheumatic heart disease (52%) was the most common cause followed by ischemic heart disease (17%). The mean age of presentation was 39 ± 16 years. The prevalence of HF in the outpatient department patients was 22.5% below 30 years and 14.9% above 50 years, reflecting the young population of HF. For the estimates concerning HF burden in India, projections were made using both age-specific extrapolations from developing countries and data regarding development of HF in the presence of risk factors. The estimated prevalence of HF is about 1% of the total population or about 8–10 million individuals. The estimated mortality attributable to HF is about 0.1–0.16 million individuals per year. Conclusions: While our hospital data are consistent with the HF burden and etiology expected in a government tertiary hospital setting, our community-based study is the first of its kind reported from India. The community study demonstrates a surprisingly low prevalence of symptomatic HF in the surveyed villages. This could be partially explained by the rural farming-based community setting but is also likely due to under-reporting of symptoms. Our review of the projected national estimates suggests an alarming burden of HF in India despite a younger population than the developed nations. A significant proportion of this burden may be preventable with better screening and early and adequate treatment of the risk factors.

Longitudinal Andhra Pradesh Eye Disease Study: rationale, study design and research methodology.

The rationale, objectives, study design and procedures for the longitudinal Andhra Pradesh Eye Disease Study are described. A longitudinal cohort study was carried out. Participants include surviving cohort from the rural component of Andhra Pradesh Eye Disease Study. During 1996-2000, Andhra Pradesh Eye Disease Survey was conducted in three rural (n = 7771) and one urban (n = 2522) areas (now called Andhra Pradesh Eye Disease Study 1). In 2009-2010, a feasibility exercise (Andhra Pradesh Eye Disease Study 2) for a longitudinal study (Andhra Pradesh Eye Disease Study 3) was undertaken in the rural clusters only, as urban clusters no longer existed. In Andhra Pradesh Eye Disease Study 3, a detailed interview will be carried out to collect data on sociodemographic factors, ocular and systemic history, risk factors, visual function, knowledge of eye diseases and barriers to accessing services. All participants will also undergo a comprehensive eye examination including photography of lens, optic disc and retina, Optic Coherence Tomography of the posterior segment, anthropometry, blood pressure and frailty measures. Measures include estimates of the incidence of visual impairment and age-related eye disease (lens opacities, glaucoma and age-related macular degeneration) and the progression of eye disease (lens opacities and myopia) and associated risk factors. Of the 7771 respondents examined in rural areas in Andhra Pradesh Eye Disease Study 1, 5447 (70.1%) participants were traced in Andhra Pradesh Eye Disease Study 2. These participants will be re-examined. Andhra Pradesh Eye Disease Study 3 will provide data on the incidence and progression of visual impairment and major eye diseases and their associated risk factors in India. The study will provide further evidence to aid planning eye care services.

Social Costs of Iron Deficiency Anemia in 6-59-Month-Old Children in India.

IntroductionInadequate nutrition has a severe impact on health in India. According to the WHO, iron deficiency is the single most important nutritional risk factor in India, accounting for more than 3% of all disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) lost. We estimate the social costs of iron deficiency anemia (IDA) in 6–59-month-old children in India in terms of intangible costs and production losses.Materials and MethodsWe build a health economic model estimating the life-time costs of a birth cohort suffering from IDA between the ages of 6 and 59 months. The model is stratified by 2 age groups (6–23 and 24–59-months), 2 geographical areas (urban and rural), 10 socio-economic strata and 3 degrees of severity of IDA (mild, moderate and severe). Prevalence of anemia is calculated with the last available National Family Health Survey. Information on the health consequences of IDA is extracted from the literature.ResultsIDA prevalence is 49.5% in 6–23-month-old and 39.9% in 24–58-month-old children. Children living in poor households in rural areas are particularly affected but prevalence is high even in wealthy urban households. The estimated yearly costs of IDA in 6–59-month-old children amount to intangible costs of 8.3 m DALYs and production losses of 24,001 m USD, equal to 1.3% of gross domestic product. Previous calculations have considerably underestimated the intangible costs of IDA as the improved WHO methodology leads to a threefold increase of DALYs due to IDA.ConclusionDespite years of iron supplementation programs and substantial economic growth, IDA remains a crucial public health issue in India and an obstacle to the economic advancement of the poor. Young children are especially vulnerable due to the irreversible effects of IDA on cognitive development. Our research may contribute to the design of new effective interventions aiming to reduce IDA in early childhood.

Study design and methods for a randomized crossover trial substituting brown rice for white rice on diabetes risk factors in India

India has the second largest number of people with diabetes in the world following China. Evidence indicates that consumption of whole grains can reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes. This article describes the study design and methods of a trial in progress evaluating the effects of substituting whole grain brown rice for polished (refined) white rice on biomarkers of diabetes risk (glucose metabolism, dyslipidemia, inflammation). This is a randomized controlled clinical trial with a crossover design conducted in Chennai, India among overweight but otherwise healthy volunteers aged 25–65 y with a body mass index ≥23 kg/m2 and habitual rice consumption ≥200 g/day. The feasibility and cultural appropriateness of this type of intervention in the local environment will also be examined. If the intervention is efficacious, the findings can be incorporated into national-level policies which could include the provision of brown rice as an option or replacement for white rice in government institutions and food programs. This relatively simple dietary intervention has the potential to substantially diminish the burden of diabetes in Asia and elsewhere.

RAPID ESCALATION OF CARDIOVASCULAR RISK FACTOR BURDEN IN RURAL AREAS OF NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION OF DELHI OVER TWENTY YEARS

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) and its risk factors in India are assumed to be a predominant urban problem. Data on the change in burden of these risk factors in urban versus rural areas is unavailable. Multistage cluster random sampling was used for two cross-sectional surveys carried out in urban

Educational status-related disparities in awareness, treatment and control of cardiovascular risk factors in India

ObjectiveTo determine association of socioeconomic status, defined by educational status (ES), with awareness, treatment and control of cardiovascular risk factors.MethodsWe performed an epidemiological study at 11 cities in India using...

The association between a vegetarian diet and cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors in India: the Indian Migration Study.

BackgroundStudies in the West have shown lower cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk among people taking a vegetarian diet, but these findings may be confounded and only a minority selects these diets. We evaluated the association between vegetarian diets (chosen by 35%) and CVD risk factors across four regions of India.MethodsStudy participants included urban migrants, their rural siblings and urban residents, of the Indian Migration Study from Lucknow, Nagpur, Hyderabad and Bangalore (n = 6555, mean age-40.9 yrs). Information on diet (validated interviewer-administered semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire), tobacco, alcohol, physical history, medical history, as well as blood pressure, fasting blood and anthropometric measurements were collected. Vegetarians ate no eggs, fish, poultry or meat. Using robust standard error multivariate linear regression models, we investigated the association of vegetarian diets with blood cholesterol, low density lipoprotein (LDL), high density lipoprotein (HDL), triglycerides, fasting blood glucose (FBG), systolic (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP).ResultsVegetarians (32.8% of the study population) did not differ from non-vegetarians with respect to age, use of smokeless tobacco, body mass index, and prevalence of diabetes or hypertension. Vegetarians had a higher standard of living and were less likely to smoke, drink alcohol (p<0.0001) and were less physically active (p = 0.04). In multivariate analysis, vegetarians had lower levels of total cholesterol (β = −0.1 mmol/L (95% CI: −0.03 to −0.2), p = 0.006), triglycerides (β = −0.05 mmol/L (95% CI: −0.007 to −0.01), p = 0.02), LDL (β = −0.06 mmol/L (95% CI: −0.005 to −0.1), p = 0.03) and lower DBP (β = −0.7 mmHg (95% CI: −1.2 to −0.07), p = 0.02). Vegetarians also had decreases in SBP (β = −0.9 mmHg (95% CI: −1.9 to 0.08), p = 0.07) and FBG level (β = −0.07 mmol/L (95% CI: −0.2 to 0.01), p = 0.09) when compared to non-vegetarians.ConclusionWe found beneficial association of vegetarian diet with cardiovascular risk factors compared to non-vegetarian diet.

O170 Educational-status related inequities in awareness, treatment and control of cardiovascular risk factors in India: Cross-sectional study

O170 Educational-status related inequities in awareness, treatment and control of cardiovascular risk factors in India: Cross-sectional study

Genetic variants in nicotine addiction and alcohol metabolism genes, oral cancer risk and the propensity to smoke and drink alcohol: a replication study in India.

BackgroundGenetic variants in nicotinic acetylcholine receptor and alcohol metabolism genes have been associated with propensity to smoke tobacco and drink alcohol, respectively, and also implicated in genetic susceptibility to head and neck cancer. In addition to smoking and alcohol, tobacco chewing is an important oral cancer risk factor in India. It is not known if these genetic variants influence propensity or oral cancer susceptibility in the context of this distinct etiology.MethodsWe examined 639 oral and pharyngeal cancer cases and 791 controls from two case-control studies conducted in India. We investigated six variants known to influence nicotine addiction or alcohol metabolism, including rs16969968 (CHRNA5), rs578776 (CHRNA3), rs1229984 (ADH1B), rs698 (ADH1C), rs1573496 (ADH7), and rs4767364 (ALDH2).ResultsThe CHRN variants were associated with the number of chewing events per day, including in those who chewed tobacco but never smoked (P = 0.003, P = 0.01 for rs16969968 and rs578776 respectively). Presence of the variant allele contributed to approximately 13% difference in chewing frequency compared to non-carriers. While no association was observed between rs16969968 and oral cancer risk (OR = 1.01, 95% CI = 0.83– 1.22), rs578776 was modestly associated with a 16% decreased risk of oral cancer (OR = 0.84, 95% CI = 0.72– 0.98). There was little evidence for association between polymorphisms in genes encoding alcohol metabolism and oral cancer in this population.ConclusionThe association between rs16969968 and number of chewing events implies that the effect on smoking propensity conferred by this gene variant extends to the use of smokeless tobacco.

Risk Factors Associated with the Increasing Cardiovascular Diseases Prevalence in India: A Review

Non-communicable diseases in general and cardiovascular diseases (CVD) in particular are a big cause of concern worldwide especially in fast growing economy like India. CVD is one of the leading causes of deaths in India. Risk factors for cardiovascular disease are now significant in all populations. At least one-third of all CVD is attributable to five risk factors: tobacco use, alcohol use, high blood pressure, high cholesterol and obesity. Methods: This article aspires to collate data gathered by relevant studies conducted after year 2000 and provide an overview of the prevalence of CVD in India and worldwide. Results: Studies show an increased prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors in India as compared to otherdeveloping and developed countries with recent trends showing incidence in younger age group. It is seen to affect almost all sections of the society from young to old and most affluent to least affluent. High blood pressure, high cholesterol, diabetes, tobacco and alcohol use, as well as low vegetable and fruit intake, already figure among the top risk factors. Conclusion: The prevalence of risk factors associated with CVD has increased and will keep on increasing in India as indicated by studies in the last decade and as predicted by the projections for future estimates. Some major risks are modifiable and they can be prevented, treated, and controlled. There are considerable health benefits at all ages, for both men and women, in stopping smoking, reducing cholesterol and blood pressure, eating a healthy diet and increasing physical activity.

Risk factors profile for noncommunicable diseases among adult urban population of puducherry in India

Introduction and Objectives: Almost two-thirds of all deaths worldwide are due to noncommunicable diseases (NCDs), which are primarily associated with tobacco-use, alcohol consumption, physical inactivity, unhealthy diet, obesity and raised blood pressure and are largely preventable. Despite the increasing burden of NCDs and their risk factors in India, information on the prevalence of preventable risk factors is restricted to some areas. This study was done to assess the prevalence and distribution of various risk factors for NCD in population of an urban area of Puducherry, in South India. Methodology: This population-based survey was conducted using the World Health Organization step-wise approach to surveillance of NCDs (steps) methodology. All the eligible subjects in systematic randomly selected households were interviewed. Standardized protocols were used to assess major behavioral risk factors (tobacco-use, alcohol consumption, unhealthy diet and physical inactivity) and physiological risk factors (overweight, abdominal obesity and raised blood pressure) for NCDs. Means and proportions were calculated for measured variables, and Chi square test was applied to find the associations. Results: Among 569 study subjects interviewed, almost half (48%) were aged <40 years and 52% (n = 295) were men. The prevalence of various risk factors was; tobacco-use (13.4%), alcohol consumption (14.2%), physical inactivity (51.5%), unhealthy diet (86.5%), overweight (36.0%), obesity (21.3%), abdominal obesity (63.3), hypertension (25.3%) and prehypertension (47.8%). Tobacco-use and alcohol consumption was significantly more prevalent among males (p < 0.05). Almost half of the study subjects had two or more risk factors. Conclusion: Present community-based study reveals the high burden of NCDs risk factors in urban population of Puducherry and the burden was particularly higher among males. This also reiterates the need to address these issues comprehensively as a part of NCDs prevention and control strategy. Further, multi-sectoral efforts like ban on sale or raising the tax on alcohol and tobacco products, health education and communication activities, enabling environment for people to engage in physical activities and other measures to lower the burden of NCDs risk factors in community have to be encouraged.

Eliciting a policy response for the rising epidemic of overweight‐obesity in India

India is experiencing multiple transitions with respect to nutrition patterns, epidemiology and demography. Along with staggering childhood undernutrition, a rapid rise in chronic diseases and their risk factors including overweight-obesity (O-O), among all sections of society, is compounding India's health challenges. We present an overview of the O-O scenario (prevalence, determinants) and profile existing initiatives to address this modifiable risk factor in India. Urgent attention from all sectors, committed resources, policy support and targeted actions are warranted to combat the dual burden of malnutrition. The health systems should be reoriented and strengthened, in addition to enabling actions in other sectors, to address prevention and control of non-communicable diseases and associated risk factors like O-O.

Esophageal Cancer: Associated Factors with Special Reference to the Kashmir Valley

Esophageal cancer is one of the most common cancers worldwide. It is a multifactorial disease, and no single agent has been identified so far as the sole cause of the cancer. Many factors like smoking, the consumption of alcohol, fungal-contaminated, spicy and various nitrosamine-containing food stuffs and hot beverages, nutritional deficiency of some vitamins like β-carotene, vitamin A, C and E and minerals like zinc, selenium and molybdenum, the use of opium, HPV infection and various genetic factors have been found associated with the occurrence of the disease worldwide. Wide geographic differences and substantial changes in the incidence of esophageal cancer occurring over time have been suggested. Among the risk factors in India, betel quid chewing carries a relatively high risk. High incidences in Kashmir have been associated with the consumption of hot salted tea, sun-dried, smoked foods, tobacco in the form of hukka and various genetic factors. The exact cause of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma is unknown. Much work has been carried out on the role of various environmental factors, gene mutations, and polymorphisms worldwide, including Kashmir. Although the Kashmir valley is present on the border of the 'high risk esophageal cancer belt' and esophageal squamous cell carcinoma represents the most commonly occurring malignancy in Kashmir, the amount of information available on various associated factors is still very little as there is a paucity of various epidemiological and molecular studies being carried out in this field.

Regional variations in cardiovascular risk factors in India: India heart watch

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is an important cause of mortality and morbidity in India. Mortality statistics and morbidity surveys indicate substantial regional variations in CVD prevalence and mortality rates. Data from the Registrar General of India reported greater age-adjusted cardiovascular mortality in southern and eastern states of the country. Coronary heart disease (CHD) mortality is greater in south India while stroke is more common in the eastern Indian states. CHD prevalence is higher in urban Indian populations while stroke mortality is similar in urban and rural regions. Case-control studies in India have identified that the common major risk factors account for more than 90% of incident myocardial infarctions and stroke. The case-control INTERHEART and INTERSTROKE studies reported that hypertension, lipid abnormalities, smoking, obesity, diabetes, sedentary lifestyle, low fruit and vegetable intake, and psychosocial stress are as important in India as in other populations of the world. Individual studies have reported that there are substantial regional variations in risk factors in India. At a macro-level these regional variations in risk factors explain some of the regional differences in CVD mortality. However, there is need to study the prevalence of multiple cardiovascular risk factors in different regions of India and to correlate them with variations in CVD mortality using a uniform protocol. There is also a need to determine the "causes of the causes" or fundamental determinants of these risk factors. The India Heart Watch study has been designed to study socioeconomic, anthropometric and biochemical risk factors in urban populations in different regions of the country in order to identify regional differences.

DOTS for TB relapse in India: A systematic review

In India, under the Revised National Tuberculosis Control Program (RNTCP), the percentage of smear-positive re-treatment cases is high. The causes of re-treatment include relapse of the disease after successful completion of treatment, treatment failure, and default in treatment. RNTCP does not follow up the patients for any period of time after successful completion of treatment to determine whether they relapse. Given the high cost of treatment for each patient under RNTCP and the potential for spread of disease from these patients, it is crucial for the success of the program and control of the disease in the country to find out more about the reasons behind this. T0 o conduct a systematic review of literature and determine evidence regarding recurrence of TB after its successful treatment with standard short course chemotherapy under DOTS guidelines. T0 en databases were searched including Medline, Cochrane database, Embase and others and reference lists of articles. 255 papers resulted from these searches. Seven studies were finally included in the review after applying the inclusion, exclusion and quality assessment criteria. R0 elapse rate is high (almost 10%) in India which is higher than international studies. Majority of relapse cases present soon after completion of treatment (first six months). Risk factors for relapse included drug irregularity, initial drug resistance, smoking and alcoholism Sex and weight were not risk factors in India. The outcome of relapse cases put on treatment is positive but less effective than new cases. There are sound arguments and sketchy evidence that DOTS Category 2 treatment may not be adequate for retreatment patients.

Socio-Economic Inequalities in the Risk of Diseases and Associated Risk Factors in India

Extant literature is full of studies on socio-economic inequalities in maternal and child health in India but studies on inequalities in risk of diseases are limited. We use data from India Human Development Survey (IHDS) conducted in 2004-05 to test two hypotheses: first, diabetes and high blood pressure are associated with affluence; and second, tuberculosis and mental illness are associated with poverty. We use rich-poor ratio, concentration curves, adjusted concentration indices, dominance test, and binary logistic regression to test the aforementioned hypotheses. The findings suggest that diabetes and high blood pressure are indeed associated with affluence. But we could not find evidence to support our second hypothesis. Also, rich and poor were equally likely to get cancer or the heart diseases. Indeed, the risk factors were disproportionately distributed, particularly to the disadvantage of the poor. Key words: Disease, affluence, poverty, concentration curves and indices, dominance.

Availability of data for monitoring noncommunicable disease risk factors in India

To examine the availability of data measuring noncommunicable disease (NCD) risk factor indicators from household surveys conducted in India from 2000 to 2009. Questionnaires and publications used in household surveys were identified through internet and PubMed searches and examined to determine which core NCD risk factor indicators recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) for NCD monitoring were being measured. Surveys with a sample size of 5000 or more were included to ensure a certain level of precision. The completeness of core indicator measurement and the geographical representativeness of the surveys were assessed. Twenty six surveys met the inclusion criteria. Among the WHO-recommended core behavioural risk factor indicators, those monitoring tobacco use were measured completely in national and subnational surveys; those assessing dietary intake and physical inactivity were measured only in subnational surveys, and those assessing alcohol use were not measured at all. Among WHO-recommended core biological risk factors, only body mass index was measured in national and subnational surveys, whereas blood pressure, fasting blood glucose and blood cholesterol were measured only in subnational surveys. Due to the use of non-standard indicator definitions, measurement of core indicators in some of the national and subnational surveys was incomplete. The availability of data on core risk factor indicators to monitor the increasing burden of NCDs is inadequate in India. These indicators using standardized definitions should be included in the periodic national household health surveys to provide data at the national and disaggregated levels.