Risk Factors For Problem Gambling Research Articles

Gambling Risk Groups are Not All the Same: Risk Factors Amongst Sports Bettors.

Sports betting is increasing worldwide, with an associated increase in sports betting-related problems. Previous studies have examined risk factors for problem gambling amongst sports bettors and have identified demographic, behavioural, marketing, normative and impulsiveness factors. These studies have generally compared those in problem gambling, or a combination of moderate risk and problem gambling, groups to non-problem gamblers, often due to statistical power issues. However, recent evidence suggests that, at a population level, the bulk of gambling-related harm stems from low risk and moderate risk gamblers, rather than problem gamblers. Thus it is essential to understand the risk factors for each level of gambling-related problems (low risk, moderate risk, problem) separately. The present study used a large sample (N=1813) to compare each gambling risk group to non-problem gamblers, first using bivariate and then multivariate statistical techniques. A range of demographic, behavioural, marketing, normative and impulsiveness variables were included as possible risk factors. The results indicated that some variables, such as gambling expenditure, number of accounts with different operators, number of different types of promotions used and impulsiveness were significantly higher for all risk groups, while others such as some normative factors, age, gender and particular sports betting variables only applied to those with the highest level of gambling-related problems. The results generally supported findings from previous literature for problem gamblers, and extended these findings to low risk and moderate risk groups. In the future, where statistical power allows, risk factors should be assessed separately for all levels of gambling problems.

Comparative Analysis of Potential Risk Factors for at-Risk Gambling, Problem Gambling and Gambling Disorder among Current Gamblers-Results of the Austrian Representative Survey 2015.

Background: The risk of developing a problem gambling behavior is distributed unequally among the population. For example, individuals who report stressful life events, show impairments of mental health or belong to a socio-economically deprived group are affected more frequently by gambling problems. The aim of our study is to investigate whether these risk factors are equally relevant for all gambling groups (social = 0 DSM-5 criteria, at risk = 1 DSM-5 criterion, problem = 2–3 DSM-5 criteria, disordered = 4–9 DSM-5 criteria).Methods: Of a total of 10,000 participants in the representative gambling survey in Austria in 2015, 4,082 individuals reported gambling during the last 12 months and were allocated to the four gambling groups according to DSM-5. With social gamblers as the reference group, relevant risk factors for the other three groups were identified by means of bi- and multivariate multinomial logistic regression.Results: Significant risk factors for gambling disorder are at-risk alcohol use (OR = 4.9), poor mental health (OR = 5.9), young age (≤26 years, OR = 2.1), a low level of formal education (OR = 2.4), having grown up with a single parent (OR = 2.5), parents with addiction problems (OR = 2.3) and belonging to the working class (OR = 2.9). Risk factors for problem gambling are parents with addiction problems (OR = 3.8), poor mental health (OR = 2.6) and a young age (OR = 2.2). With regard to at-risk gambling, only growing up with a single parent was relevant (OR = 2.4).Conclusion: Overall, the results of this study suggest, that the number and the influence of the included risk factors differ between gambling problem groups. Apparently, the development of severe gambling problems is to a lesser extent facilitated by specific risk factors than by their cumulative presence. Therefore, future prevention and treatment measures should place a particular focus on individuals who have experienced growing up in a difficult family situation, have poor mental health, suffer from substance-related problems or have a low level of formal education.

Adolescent gambling in greater Athens area: a cross-sectional study.

Problem gambling in adolescents has recently emerged as a pressing public health concern. In this context and in light of the pervasive financial crisis in Greece, the present study aimed to explore adolescents' gambling involvement in Athens region to estimate the prevalence of its problematic form and to identify its risk/protective factors. A total of 2141 students were recruited from a representative sample of 51 schools located in greater Athens area. The presence of problem gambling was assessed through the use of the DSM-IV-MR-J questionnaire. Data were collected in the form of a self-reported questionnaire during one school hour. Results indicate that 1-year prevalence of high severity problem gambling was found to be 5.6%. Regarding the risk factors for problem gambling; male gender, parental engagement with gambling activities, living without the parents, low grades at school, foreign nationality and the referent absence of availability of food in the household, increased the risk of suffering from the disorder. Gambling behavior among adolescents constitutes a problem in Greece and highlights the need for designing and implementing appropriate preventive interventions, especially amid the ongoing financial crisis.

Risk Factors for Problem Gambling in California: Demographics, Comorbidities and Gambling Participation.

While population surveys have been carried out in numerous jurisdictions internationally, little has been done to assess the relative strength of different risk factors that may contribute to the development of problem gambling. This is an important preparatory step for future research on the etiology of problem gambling. Using data from the 2006 California Problem Gambling Prevalence Survey, a telephone survey of adult California residents that used the NODS to assess respondents for gambling problems, binary logistic regression analysis was used to identify demographic characteristics, health-related behaviors, and gambling participation variables that statistically predicted the odds of being a problem or pathological gambler. In a separate approach, linear regression analysis was used to assess the impact of changes in these variables on the severity of the disorder. In both of the final models, the greatest statistical predictor of problem gambling status was past year Internet gambling. Furthermore, the unique finding of a significant interaction between physical or mental disability, Internet gambling, and problem gambling highlights the importance of exploring the interactions between different forms of gambling, the experience of mental and physical health issues, and the development of problem gambling using a longitudinal lens.

Identifying Environmental and Social Factors Predisposing to Pathological Gambling Combining Standard Logistic Regression and Logic Learning Machine.

Identifying potential risk factors for problem gambling (PG) is of primary importance for planning preventive and therapeutic interventions. We illustrate a new approach based on the combination of standard logistic regression and an innovative method of supervised data mining (Logic Learning Machine or LLM). Data were taken from a pilot cross-sectional study to identify subjects with PG behaviour, assessed by two internationally validated scales (SOGS and Lie/Bet). Information was obtained from 251 gamblers recruited in six betting establishments. Data on socio-demographic characteristics, lifestyle and cognitive-related factors, and type, place and frequency of preferred gambling were obtained by a self-administered questionnaire. The following variables associated with PG were identified: instant gratification games, alcohol abuse, cognitive distortion, illegal behaviours and having started gambling with a relative or a friend. Furthermore, the combination of LLM and LR indicated the presence of two different types of PG, namely: (a) daily gamblers, more prone to illegal behaviour, with poor money management skills and who started gambling at an early age, and (b) non-daily gamblers, characterised by superstitious beliefs and a higher preference for immediate reward games. Finally, instant gratification games were strongly associated with the number of games usually played. Studies on gamblers habitually frequently betting shops are rare. The finding of different types of PG by habitual gamblers deserves further analysis in larger studies. Advanced data mining algorithms, like LLM, are powerful tools and potentially useful in identifying risk factors for PG.

The cost of virtual wins: An examination of gambling-related risks in youth who spend money on social casino games

Background and aimsSocial casino games (SCGs) are not technically considered a form of gambling but they do enable players to spend money in a game that is gambling themed or structurally approximate to gambling. It has been theorized that SCGs could be a gateway to gambling activities or otherwise normalize the experience of gambling for young people, particularly when money becomes involved. The aim of this study was to investigate whether adolescents’ financial expenditure in SCGs was associated with broader gambling activity, including level of participation, expenditure, and problem gambling symptoms.Methods An online survey was administered to 555 adolescents, including 130 SCG players (78 non-paying and 52 paying users).Results Paying SCG users tended to be employed males who play more frequently and engage in more SCG activities, who report more symptoms of problem gambling and higher psychological distress than non-paying SCG users. Paying SCG users reported more frequent engagement and spending in monetary gambling activities, and two-thirds of SCG payers recalled that their SCG use had preceded involvement in financial gambling.Discussion and conclusions Spending in simulated gambling activities by adolescents may be a risk factor for problem gambling. Although SCGs may currently defy classification as a form of gambling, these activities will likely continue to be scrutinized by regulators for the use of dubious or exploitative payment features offered in a gambling-themed format that is available to persons of all ages.

Gambling and Problem Gambling among Canadian Urban Aboriginals.

To assess the prevalence of gambling and problem gambling in urban Aboriginals in the Canadian Prairie provinces and to determine the predictors of problem gambling. In total, 1114 Aboriginals living in 15 cities in Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba were recruited via posters and direct solicitation at Native Friendship Centres, shopping malls, and other locations where Aboriginals congregated. They each completed a self-administered 5- to 10-minute survey. Urban Aboriginals in the present sample were found to have a much higher level of gambling participation than the general Canadian public, especially for electronic gambling machines, instant lotteries, and bingo. Their intensity of participation in terms of number of formats, frequency of play, and gambling expenditure was also very high. This, in turn, is an important contributing factor to their very high rate of problem gambling, which was found to be 27.2%. Problem gambling was higher in males, unemployed people, and cities having the highest proportion of their population consisting of urban Aboriginals. Urban Aboriginal people appear to have some of the highest known rates of problem gambling of any group in Canada. This is attributable to having many more risk factors for problem gambling, such as a greater level of participation in gambling, greater participation in continuous forms of gambling (e.g., electronic gambling machines), younger average age, higher rates of substance abuse and mental health problems, and a range of disadvantageous social conditions (e.g., poverty, unemployment, poor education, cultural stress) that are conducive to the development of addictive behaviour.

Gambling, Delay, and Probability Discounting in Adults With and Without ADHD

Objective: We investigated the relationship between impulsivity, as measured by delay and probability discounting, and gambling-related cognitions and behavior in adults with and without ADHD. Method: Adults who met Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.; DSM-IV) diagnostic criteria for ADHD (n = 31) and controls (n = 29) were recruited from the community. All completed an interview that included an assessment of psychiatric disorders, gambling questionnaires, and simulated gambling, delay, and probability discounting tasks. Results: The ADHD group was more likely to meet the criteria for problem gambling and was more impulsive than controls based on a composite discounting measure. ADHD symptoms were correlated with gambling-related cognitions and behavior. Probability, but not delay discounting, explained significant variance in gambling-related measures after controlling for ADHD symptoms. Discussion: Results confirm an association between adult ADHD and gambling, and suggest that the facets of impulsivity related to risk proneness may be an independent risk factor for problem gambling in this population.

Tracking online poker problem gamblers with player account-based gambling data only

The aim was to develop and validate an instrument to track online problem poker gamblers with player account-based gambling data (PABGD). We emailed an invitation to all active poker gamblers on the online gambling service provider Winamax. The 14,261 participants completed the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI). PGSI served as a gold standard to track problem gamblers (i.e., PGSI ≥ 5). We used a stepwise logistic regression to build a predictive model of problem gambling with PABGD, and validated it. Of the sample 18% was composed of online poker problem gamblers. The risk factors of problem gambling included in the predictive model were being male, compulsive, younger than 28years, making a total deposit > 0 euros, having a mean loss per gambling session > 1.7 euros, losing a total of > 45 euros in the last 30days, having a total stake > 298 euros, having > 60 gambling sessions in the last 30days, and multi-tabling. The tracking instrument had a sensitivity of 80%, and a specificity of 50%. The quality of the instrument was good. This study illustrates the feasibility of a method to develop and validate instruments to track online problem gamblers with PABGD only. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Investigating Veterans' Pre-, Peri-, and Post-Deployment Experiences as Potential Risk Factors for Problem Gambling.

Background and aimsGambling disorder and its comorbid diagnoses are observed at higher rates in military veterans than in the general population. A significant research gap exists regarding the relationships of veterans’ life and service experiences to problematic gambling. The present study explored pre-, peri-, and post-deployment factors associated with problem gambling in veterans.MethodsVeterans of Operation Iraqi Freedom, Operation Enduring Freedom, and Operation New Dawn (n = 738; 463 males, and 275 females) completed questionnaires via structured telephone interview. We conducted bivariate and multinomial logistic regression analyses exploring associations among problem-gambling severity and socio-demographic variables, psychiatric comorbidities, and 10 scales of the Deployment Risk and Resilience Inventory measuring experiences pre-, peri-, and post-deployment.ResultsApproximately 4.2% of veterans indicated at-risk or probable pathological gambling (ARPG) post-deployment (two or more DSM-IV criteria for pathological gambling). Bivariate analyses found more severe gambling in males, higher frequencies of post-traumatic stress disorder, substance dependence, traumatic brain injury, panic disorder, and depression in veterans with ARPG, and higher general harassment during deployment, and lower social support and more stressful life events post-deployment in those with ARPG. In multivariable models, both post-deployment factors remained significantly associated with ARPG.DiscussionThe study suggests that problem gambling among veterans is related to service experiences, and particularly to life experiences post-deployment.ConclusionsAdverse service and life experiences and lack of social support may contribute to the risk of problem gambling in military veterans. Investigation of how Veterans Affairs clinical settings may serve veterans following deployment to prevent behavioral addictions is warranted.

Demographic, Behavioural and Normative Risk Factors for Gambling Problems Amongst Sports Bettors.

Sports betting is growing exponentially, is heavily marketed and successfully targets young adult males. Associated gambling problems are increasing. Therefore, understanding risk factors for problem gambling amongst sports bettors is an increasingly important area of research to inform the appropriate design and targeting of public health and treatment interventions. This study aimed to identify demographic, behavioural and normative risk factors for gambling problems amongst sports bettors. An online survey of 639 Australian sports bettors using online, telephone and retail betting channels was conducted. Results indicated that vulnerable sports bettors for higher risk gambling are those who are young, male, single, educated, and employed full-time or a full-time student. Risk of problem gambling was also found to increase with greater frequency and expenditure on sports betting, greater diversity of gambling involvement, and with more impulsive responses to betting opportunities, including in-play live action betting. Normative influences from media advertising and from significant others were also associated with greater problem gambling risk. The results of this study can inform a suite of intervention, protection and treatment initiatives targeted especially at young male adults and adolescents that can help to limit the harm from this gambling form.

Adolescent gambling and problem gambling: examination of an extended theory of planned behaviour

Adolescent problem gambling is acknowledged as a public health concern. To better understand adolescent gambling and problem gambling behaviour, the present study investigated the relationships between psychological correlates of gambling frequency and problem gambling using an extended theory of planned behaviour (TPB; i.e. intentions, attitudes, subjective norms, perceptions of behavioural control) that includes negative anticipated emotions as a factor associated with gambling intentions. Four hundred and nineteen high school students were surveyed in the Montreal (Canada) region. The findings generally support the applicability of an extended TPB model for explaining gambling behaviour frequency and gambling problems among adolescents. The results reveal that negative anticipated emotions, attitudes and perceptions of behavioural control influence gambling intentions. The results further reveal that intentions and attitudes have a direct relationship with gambling frequency, while intentions and perceptions of behavioural control are directly related to problem gambling behaviours. These findings suggest that adolescent problem gambling prevention and intervention efforts should consider targeting negative anticipated emotions and other TPB components in order to postpone initiation to gambling (a risk factor for problem gambling) and to promote gambling decision-making.

Clustering Finnish Gambler Profiles Based on the Money and Time Consumed in Gambling Activities.

Gambling involves consumption of gamblers' money and time. Gamblers are a heterogeneous group, and in addition to grouping gamblers based on personality factors, it is also important to find different gambler profiles with respect to their gambling behavior. Using the nationally representative survey 'Finnish Gambling 2011' (N=4484), this article studies the subtypes of Finnish gamblers based on the frequency of gambling and the amounts of money and time used in different gambling forms. Cluster analysis reveals six profiles of gamblers, from infrequent gamblers to omnivorous gamblers. In the further analysis of the clusters, it was found that the highest problem gambling prevalence was in the groups of sport betting+electronic gaming machine gamblers and omnivorous gamblers, which were also both dominated by men. Certain gambling consumption patterns and risk factors for problem gambling are related to both socio-demographic backgrounds of the gamblers as well as the structural and situational characteristics of the games. The results have implications for the prevention of problem gambling, as some consumption patterns may be connected with the probability of developing gambling problems.

The Social and Psychological Impacts of Gambling in the Cree Communities of Northern Québec.

A detailed survey of gambling, addiction and mental health was conducted with randomly selected respondents (n=506) from four Cree communities of Northern Quebec. The study examined the current patterns of gambling in relation to demographic, social, and psychological factors. Instruments included the Canadian Problem Gambling Index, Addiction Severity Index, Beck Depression Inventory and the computerized Diagnostic Interview Schedule for psychiatric diagnoses. Overall, 69.2% of the total sample participated in any gambling/gaming activities over the past year; 20.6% of this group were classified as moderate/high risk gamblers, and 3.2% were classified in the highest "problem gambling" category. Considering the entire sample, the overall prevalence of problem gambling was 2.2%. Women were significantly more likely to play bingo (56.6%) compared to men (35.1%) and they played more frequently; 20.8% of women versus 3.8% of men played once/week or more often. Compared to the no/low risk gamblers, a greater proportion of moderate/high risk gamblers were cigarette smokers (44.8 vs. 56.3%), they were more likely to meet DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for alcohol dependence (21.2 vs. 46.2%), and they were more likely to report moderate to severe depressive symptoms in the past month. Risk factors for problem gambling included traumatic life events (physical and emotional abuse), anxiety and depression, as well as drug/alcohol abuse. The high rates of comorbidity between problem gambling, tobacco dependence, substance abuse and other psychological problems demonstrate that gambling among some Cree adults is part of a pattern of high-risk factors for negative long-term health consequences. The results also have implications for treatment, suggesting that interventions for gambling disorders should not focus on gambling alone but rather the constellation of high-risk behaviours that pose a risk to recovery and well-being.

Greater involvement and diversity of Internet gambling as a risk factor for problem gambling.

Background: Concerns that Internet gambling has elevated the prevalence of problem gambling have not been substantiated; however, evidence suggests a subgroup of Internet gamblers do experience higher rates of gambling harms. Greater overall involvement in gambling appears to be predictive of harms. The purpose of this study was to examine differences between Internet gamblers with a single or multiple online gambling accounts, including their gambling behaviours, factors influencing their online gambling and risk of experiencing gambling problems. Methods: Internet gamblers (3178) responding to an online survey that assessed their gambling behaviour, and use of single or multiple online gambling accounts. Results: Results revealed that multiple account holders were more involved gamblers, gambling on more activities and more frequently, and had higher rates of gambling problems than single account holders. Multiple account holders selected gambling sites based on price, betting options, payout rates and game experience, whereas single account holders prioritized legality and consumer protection features. Conclusion: Results suggest two different types of Internet gamblers: one motivated to move between sites to optimize preferred experiences with a tendency to gamble in a more volatile manner; and a smaller, but more stable group less influenced by promotions and experiences, and seeking a reputable and safe gambling experience. As the majority of Internet gamblers use multiple accounts, more universal responsible gambling strategies are needed to assist gamblers to track and control their expenditure to reduce risks of harm.

The influence of sex, temperament, risk-taking and mental health on the emergence of gambling: a longitudinal study of young people

There are a host of complex and interlinked psychological, social and biological factors involved in the development of problem gambling (PG). While existing research, which is predominantly cross-sectional, shows that emerging adulthood is a critical period for PG, the early risk factors for PG are currently unknown. Here, we recruited a sample of 156 early adolescents with no history of PG (mean age 12.6 years) and longitudinally followed them up into late adolescence (mean age 18.9 years) to investigate the role of sex, risk-taking behaviour and changes in temperament and psychiatric symptoms in the evolution of risky gambling behaviour. There were sex-independent effects of temperament and risk-taking behaviour, with greater developmental increases in temperamental frustration (i.e. negative affectivity), greater developmental decreases in temperamental attention (i.e. effortful control) and greater involvement in risky behaviours, such as alcohol use, predicting greater likelihood of being in the risky gambling group. In addition, there were sex-dependent effects whereby higher levels of baseline aggression in females and lower levels of the same in males were more predictive of risky gambling. These findings highlight how sex-dependent and independent factors across the early- to mid-adolescent period influence the occurrence of gambling later in life.

Gratitude, Hope, Mindfulness and Personal-Growth Initiative: Buffers or Risk Factors for Problem Gambling?

The majority of prevention and intervention research in problem gambling (PG) has focused on identifying negative risk factors. However, not all at-risk individuals go on to develop anticipated disorders and many thrive in spite of them. In healthcare settings, PG and other disorders are typically conceptualized from the biomedical perspective that frame disorders as something negative residing within the individual and reduction in negativity is seen as success. Indeed, this problem-focused conceptualization may be adequate in many cases as reducing PG behaviour is undoubtedly an important outcome, but the focus on negativity alone is too narrow to capture the complexity of human behaviour. Hence, this study attempts to bridge the gap in literature by providing an evaluation of the predictive ability of the positive dispositions on problem gambling severity, gambling-related cognitions, and gambling urges. The positive psychological dispositions examined were curiosity, gratitude, hope, personal growth initiative, and mindfulness. Participants consisted of 801 Taiwanese Chinese students and community individuals (Mean age = 25.36 years). Higher levels of gratitude and hope have been found to predict lower PG, gambling-related cognitions, or gambling urges. Meanwhile, higher mindfulness predicted lower PG, but only among Chinese males. However, lower personal growth initiative predicted lower PG, gambling-related cognitions, and gambling urges. These analyses have small to medium effect sizes with significant predictions. Findings of this study have essential implications in understanding and treating Chinese problem gamblers. These positive dispositions should be addressed by mental health professionals in preventative and treatment programs among Chinese individuals. Further implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Gambling Among Indigenous Men and Problem Gambling Risk Factors: An Australian Study

This paper aims to analyse the gambling activities and problem gambling risk factors for Indigenous Australian men, a topic which has previously drawn very little research attention. Using quantitative methods, we obtained a convenience sample of 1,259 women and men at Indigenous festivals, online and in several communities. This paper reports only on the responses of all 489 men in this sample. Risk factors significantly associated with problem gambling were being separated, divorced or widowed, working part-time, early gambling onset, using alcohol and/or drugs while gambling and spending high amounts of money on a favourite gambling form. Motivations significantly associated with risks of problem gambling were gambling to relax, because most family members and friends also gamble and self-reported addiction to gambling. However men who gamble to socialise with family and friends were significantly less likely to be problem gamblers. Risk factor identification may facilitate the development of effective preventative measures and risk management plans for Indigenous men.

Gambling Behaviour and Gambling Risk Factors for Indigenous Australian Women

Minimal detailed research has been conducted into gambling by Indigenous women, despite indications from previous studies that they tend to be highly involved gamblers and a high risk group for gambling problems. This quantitative analysis investigates key aspects of gambling by Indigenous Australian women and determines risk factors underpinning problem gambling. Study participants were 687 Indigenous women recruited from Indigenous sports and cultural festivals. The survey instrument focused on socio-demographic characteristics, age of first gamble, gambling motivations, gambling behaviour, substance use while gambling, problem gambling severity, harms arising from gambling and help-seeking efforts. The findings reveal elevated rates of gambling participation, especially on poker machines, and a high prevalence of gambling problems when compared to the general population. Indigenous women who are motivated to gamble to socialise with friends and family are significantly less likely to be problem gamblers. However, risk factors for problem gambling include gambling on a greater number of gambling forms, high gambling expenditure, early onset of gambling, escape-based gambling motivations, self-reported addiction to gambling, and using alcohol and drugs while gambling. Findings point to an urgent need for culturally appropriate treatment for Indigenous Australian women with gambling problems. Culturally appropriate community education and harm minimisation measures should also be available for Indigenous women who gamble given the seemingly high proportion likely to experience at least some harm from gambling. The cost of such approaches would be returned in the enhanced health and wellbeing of Indigenous Australian women, their families and communities.

Gambling and Problem Gambling in Sweden: Changes Between 1998 and 2009

Gambling participation and rates of problem gambling change over time in response to a variety of factors including gambling availability, demographic changes and adaptation at individual and societal levels. These relationship are complex and only partially understood. The major aim of the present study was to provide general population estimates of gambling participation and problem gambling for Sweden and compare these estimates with estimates from a previous national study. The study was also designed to identify risk factors for problem gambling including change in these factors over time. Data are from the first phase of the Swedish Longitudinal Gambling Study (Swelogs) in which a representative sample of 8,165 people was assessed using validated problem gambling and other measures to facilitate comparison with findings from the 1997/1998 Swedish Gambling Study (Swegs). Overall, it was found that gambling participation reduced markedly, although in some population sectors increases were evident for some forms including poker and electronic gaming machines. Lifetime prevalence of probable pathological gambling increased; however, past 12months probable pathological and problem gambling prevalence did not. Males, younger adults and people born outside Sweden were at high risk in both studies. Significant prevalence increases were evident for people aged 18-24 and those with low levels of education. The results indicate that relationships between gambling exposure, participation and problems are dynamic with shifting implications for public health and social policy.