Rio Das Velhas Greenstone Belt Research Articles

The multifractal nature of worldclass orogenic gold systems in greenstone belts: A multiscale approach and case study at the Córrego do Sítio deposit, Rio das Velhas greenstone belt, Brazil

Understanding the controls on the spatial distribution of mineral deposits is crucial for prospecting new occurrences. Various geological processes operate together at microscopic to macroscopic scales, generating mineral systems responsible for significant accumulations of economic minerals. This characteristic of functioning at various scales, accompanied by repetition of features over space during mineralization, indicates that these processes are self-similar, meaning they exhibit fractal geometry. Previous research has demonstrated that the combined action of processes involved in mineralization in such critical, nonlinear systems, produces objects with multifractal characteristics. Therefore, the spatial distribution of mineral deposits should be studied using appropriate methods for better understanding of their controls. In this context, this study investigated the multiscale geometric characteristics of worldclass orogenic gold systems in Archean greenstone belts using fractal and multifractal analyses. First, at the macroscopic-scale, regional-scale features were considered in the major greenstone belt provinces with orogenic gold deposits worldwide, namely: Abitibi (Canada), Norseman–Wiluna (Australia), Rio das Velhas (Brazil), and Central Lapland (Finland). Next, at an intermediate scale, local-scale features were examined in detail within the context of the Córrego do Sítio Lineament. Finally, at the microscopic scale, the focus was on the Córrego do Sítio orogenic gold deposit—a key deposit in the Rio das Velhas greenstone belt. Fractal dimensions of the spatial distributions of mineral deposits, magnetic lineaments, and their intersections were investigated at the macroscopic to local scales, as well as the spatial distribution of ore minerals at the microscopic scale, using the box-counting method. Maps of fractal dimensions of magnetic lineaments were generated and compared with the spatial distribution and tonnage of orogenic gold deposits at the regional scale. The same features were analyzed using the method of multifractal moments. The results at the three scales were analyzed and synthesized to identify meaningful patterns for understanding these orogenic gold systems. With regard to fractality, the orogenic gold deposits in all the investigated provinces exhibited unique spatial distributions at different scales, namely: less than 2–4 km, from 2 to 4 km to 10–30 km, and more than 10–30 km. The analysis of magnetic lineaments yielded a correlation between gradients of fractal dimensions and gold tonnages in the orogenic gold deposits. The multifractal analyses indicate multifractal geometries extending from the microscopic to the macroscopic scale. The calculated multifractal indices of Δα (singularity variation), τ“(1) (multifractality index), and Δf(α) (multifractal spectrum variation) showed direct relationships with endowment of orogenic gold in the studied provinces, as well as with differences in mineralization styles in thin sections. The findings demonstrate the effectiveness of the analyses used for improved characterization of the studied mineral systems; they also allow comparing similar systems at different scales and locations and they can be used to study other mineral systems with similar geological controls.

KOMATIITE LAVAS FROM THE QUEBRA OSSO GROUP (RIO DAS VELHAS GREENSTONE BELT, SOUTHEAST BRAZIL): A FIELD GUIDE TO AN ARCHEAN FLOW FIELD

The Quebra Osso Group encompasses one of the best preserved Archean komatiite flows in the Quadrilátero Ferrífero region, southern São Francisco craton (Brazil). It is commonly associated with the base of the Rio das Velhas greenstone belt within the Santa Bárbara tectonostratigraphic block. The Quebra Osso rocks are well exposed along the valley of the homonymous river, near the Catas Altas city (Minas Gerais state), and in inactive serpentine quarries. In this field guide, we provide the descriptions of the key outcrops in this area, including a variety of komatiite flows, sedimentary rocks and pyroclastic rocks. Despite the pervasive alteration of primary mineral assemblages due to greenschist to amphibolite facies metamorphism, the ultramafic rocks exhibit diverse igneous textures and structures. Volcanic textures are recognizable due to the morphology of the original igneous olivine and pyroxene, which underwent pseudomorphosis by hydrous minerals – serpentine and chlorite. These features include distinctive spinifex and cumulate textures that provide clues of the conditions operating during emplacement and crystallization of the ultrabasic liquids. The predominance of thick-packages of massive flows suggests channelized lava flows, with subordinate thin marginal layered (spinifex-textured), pillowed, brecciated and pyroclastic flows. Volcanic breccias, pillow lavas and chemical sedimentary rocks indicate that these rocks erupted underwater. These multiple volcanic products characterize a unique komatiite flow field and their remarkable preservation distinguishes the Quebra Osso Group from the other ultramafic associations within the São Francisco Craton.

The multiscale edge detection filter applied to airborne electromagnetic data interpretation: A case study at the Rio das Velhas Greenstone Belt, Quadrilátero Ferrífero, Brazil

Potential-field edge detection filters are powerful fault detection tools in mineral exploration. The application of these filters to electromagnetic (EM) data is not as accepted as those associated with potential field data. But they may be advantageous when dealing with mineralizations associated with non-magnetic rocks. This paper introduces the multiscale edge detection filter to provide an enhanced image of fault zones when applied to apparent conductivity data. The Rio das Velhas Greenstone Belt, the studied area, hosts several gold mineralizations controlled by northwest–southeast shear zones subparallel to non-magnetic metasedimentary rocks that are typical candidates for the EM interpretation. Several northwest–southeast trending faults were highlighted in the studied area. We employed a data fusion interpretation strategy by correlating the detected EM faults with radiometric anomalies to classify high-priority spots for future exploration. We tagged four known gold deposits and new targets with similar characteristics following the proposed guidelines.

Ediacaran - Cambrian fluid flow in Archean orogenic gold deposits: Evidence from U–Pb SHRIMP hydrothermal monazite ages of the metaturbidite-hosted Córrego do Sítio and Pilar deposits, Quadrilátero Ferrífero, Brazil

Archean orogenic gold deposits are hosted in the Rio das Velhas greenstone belt in the eastern sector of the Quadrilátero Ferrífero, Southern São Francisco Craton region, southeastern Brazil. These include the gold deposits along the NE-trending Córrego do Sítio lineament, stretching for some 15 km, and the Pilar deposit, object of the present study. These deposits occur in an area close to the boundary of the São Francisco craton, which is commonly interpreted to have preserved the Archean and Paleoproterozoic crust from the effects of Ediacaran-Cambrian Araçuaí orogenic front. The gold deposits were formerly interpreted as exclusively Archean (ca. 2.7 Ga). However, recent geochronological data suggest the imprint of the late Ediacaran-Cambrian Brasiliano Orogeny in host rocks of these deposits, as structural modification or hydrothermal alteration assemblages that postdates Archean mineralization. To elucidate those issues, contextual (thin section) in-situ U–Pb SHRIMP dating was conducted on hydrothermal monazite crystals from the Carvoaria and Cachorro Bravo deposits of the Córrego do Sítio lineament and from the Pilar gold deposit. Hydrothermal monazite in mineralized metapelites from Carvoaria yielded a U–Pb Discordia with intercepts at 2,514 ± 22 Ma and 555 ± 19 Ma. Three younger, age-equivalent crystals are concordant and yielded a U–Pb Concordia age of 539 ± 9 Ma, identical within uncertainties to the lower intercept age. Monazite from the Cachorro Bravo deposit yielded U–Pb Concordia ages of 551 ± 10 Ma and 510 ± 11 Ma. Monazite from the veined (silicified) sulfide-schist from the Pilar deposit is depleted in U, precluding the calculation of robust U–Pb ages, and disclosed a mean 208Pb/232Th average age of 508.2 ± 6.4 Ma. These results reinforce the proposal of a strong Ediacaran-Cambrian imprint related to the final stages of the Brasiliano orogenic event, affecting Archean gold deposits throughout the Quadrilátero Ferrífero. Consequently, the results point to the importance of mapping Brasiliano-related structures that control the spatial arrangement of the gold deposits, such as the Córrego do Sítio lineament, consisting of an important exploration target. This major NE-SW trending strike-slip shear zone hosts several gold deposits and might represent an Archean structure reactivated during the Brasiliano Orogeny that possibly led the large volume of Ediacaran-Cambrian post-collisional hydrothermal fluids among the east sector of the Quadrilátero Ferrífero.

Neoarchean atmospheric chemistry and the preservation of S-MIF in sediments from the São Francisco Craton

Sulfur mass-independent fractionation (S-MIF) preserved in Archean sedimentary pyrite is interpreted to reflect atmospheric chemistry. Small ranges in Δ33S that expanded into larger fractionations leading up to the Great Oxygenation Event (GOE; 2.45–2.2 Ga) are disproportionately represented by sequences from the Kaapvaal and Pilbara Cratons. These patterns of S-MIF attenuation and enhancement may differ from the timing and magnitude of minor sulfur isotope fractionations reported from other cratons, thus obscuring local for global sulfur cycling dynamics. By expanding the Δ33S record to include the relatively underrepresented São Francisco Craton in Brazil, we suggest that marine biogeochemistry affected S-MIF preservation prior to the GOE. In an early Neoarchean sequence (2763–2730 Ma) from the Rio das Velhas Greenstone Belt, we propose that low δ13Corg (<−30‰) and dampened Δ33S (0.4‰ to −0.7‰) in banded iron formation reflect the marine diagenetic process of anaerobic methane oxidation. The overlying black shale (TOC up to 7.8%) with higher δ13Corg (−33.4‰ to −19.2‰) and expanded Δ33S (2.3‰ ± 0.8‰), recorded oxidative sulfur cycling that resulted in enhance preservation of S-MIF input from atmospheric sources of elemental sulfur. The sequence culminates in a metasandstone, where concomitant changes to more uniform δ13Corg (−30‰ to −25‰), potentially associated with the RuBisCO I enzyme, and near-zero Δ33S (−0.04‰ to 0.38‰) is mainly interpreted as evidence for local oxygen production. When placed in the context of other sequences worldwide, the Rio das Velhas helps differentiate the influences of global atmospheric chemistry and local marine diagenesis in Archean biogeochemical processes. Our data suggest that prokaryotic sulfur, iron, and methane cycles might have an underestimated role in pre-GOE sulfur minor isotope records.

Paleoenvironmental reconstruction of gold-bearing BIF from the Archean Cuiabá deposit based on petrographic and geochemical studies

In the world-class Cuiabá gold deposit, located in the Archean Rio das Velhas greenstone belt in Brazil, metamorphosed carbonate-dominated banded iron formations represent the main lithology hosting gold mineralization. The deposit's stratigraphy consists of a basal metavolcanic unit with carbonaceous metasedimentary rocks, followed by a layer of gold-bearing BIF and thin layer of carbonaceous metapelite, a upper metavolcanic unit, and turbiditic metapelites associated with metavolcanoclastic rocks. The BIF is essentially composed of fine-grained quartz and siderite, with variable contents of carbonaceous matter. It is assumed that these chemical sedimentary rocks, classified as Algoma-type BIF, have been formed in the deep-sea environment, relatively close to volcanic spreading centers. This hypothesis is supported by the BIF's geochemical signature, which in general presents a positive anomaly of La (La/La*paas = 0.64–3.43), Eu (Eu/Eu*paas = 1.27–4.05) and Y, reflecting characteristics inherited from seawater and high-temperature hydrothermal fluids (>250 °C). In addition, the commonly observed superchondritic Y/Ho ratio values reinforce the influence of seawater on the rock's geochemistry. The absence of Ce anomalies concerns the oxygenation conditions of seawater, indicating low oxygen availability. The low content of Al2O3 (<0,27%) and other immobile elements, typical of detrital sediments, corroborate the interpretation that these rocks have been deposited in a deep marine environment with low siliciclastic influence. Subordinately, ferruginous metachert, BIF with magnetite and BIF with silicates are also present in the Cuiabá gold deposit. This diversity may be related to specific changes in the basin during the deposition of ferruginous chemical sedimentary rocks - changes that may indicate, for example. variations in the detritic support or availability of carbonaceous matter. Furthermore, geochemical studies from the lower and upper mafic metavolcanic units of the Cuiabá gold deposit helped to constrain and provide a broader understanding of the depositional basin's geotectonic context. Consequently, a genetic model that includes the paleoenvironment of this sequence is proposed. Both rocks of the lower and upper units have very similar mineralogical composition, but register significant geochemical differences. The lower unit is a calc-alkaline basalt/andesite from a continental arc, interpreted as having been developed during the Rio das Velhas II event (2800-2760 Ma), while the upper unit is defined as basalt with a transitional affinity to tholeiitic, possibly corresponding to an ocean floor volcanism.

The Archean Rio das Velhas greenstone belt revisited: new insights into the stratigraphy

The Neoarchean Rio das Velhas greenstone belt (RVGB), southeast Brazil, contains major tectonic and stratigraphic discontinuities that allow its division into three fault-bound tectonostratigraphic blocks named Santa Barbara, Nova Lima-Caete and Sao Bartolomeu. Detailed 1:25,000 scale mapping of the RVGB northern part revealed that each block contains important particularities and were subdivided into different lithostratigraphic formal units. The Santa Barbara block comprises the basal ultrabasic rocks of the Quebra Osso Group, followed by metavolcano-sedimentary successions of the Nova Lima Group (Vigario da Vara, Santa Quiteria, and Corrego do Sitio formations), and metasedimentary rocks of the Maquine Group (Palmital and Casa Forte formations). The Nova Lima-Caete block comprises the basal ultrabasic/basic volcanism (Ouro Fino and Morro Vermelho formations), metavolcano-sedimentary sequences (Mestre Caetano and Ribeirao do Brumado formations) of the Nova Lima Group, and the upper clastic sedimentary rocks of the Maquine Group (Palmital and Casa Forte formations). The Sao Bartolomeu block has a distinct rock assemblage given by metasedimentary rocks of the Nova Lima Group (Fazenda Velha, Corrego da Paina, and Pau D'Oleo formations), and clastic sedimentary rocks of the Maquine Group (Andaimes Formation). Despite some remarkable differences between these blocks, it is possible to recognize stratigraphic correlations and similar depositional evolution. The authors suggest volcanic architecture and sedimentary depositional models for the studied area, which includes: i) fissure eruption of komatiite lavas of the Quebra Osso Group in the SB block with subordinate clasto-chemical sedimentation; ii) ultrabasic/basic volcanism related to multiple volcanic centers in a subaqueous environment, characteristic from the basal portion of the Nova Lima Group in the SB and NLC blocks; iii) intermediate to acid volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks from the Nova Lima Group, present only in the NLC block, related to explosive eruptions; iv) clasto-chemical sedimentation, well recorded in the SB block; v) thick sequence of clastic sediments recorded in the three blocks with a predominance of greywacke-argillite cycles, deposited by turbidity currents in tectonically active submarine basins; vi) metasediments formed in alluvial-fluvial, coastal and shallow marine environments of the Maquine Group.

Structural Evolution of the Rio das Velhas Greenstone Belt, Quadrilátero Ferrífero, Brazil: Influence of Proterozoic Orogenies on Its Western Archean Gold Deposits

The Quadrilátero Ferrífero region is located in the extreme southeast of the Brasiliano São Francisco craton, Minas Gerais state, Brazil. It is composed of (i) Archean TTG granite-gneaissic terranes; (ii) the Archean Rio das Velhas greenstone belt; (iii) the Proterozoic metasedimentary and metavolcano-sedimentary covers. The Rio das Velhas rocks were deposited in the synformal NW–SE-directed Nova Lima basin. The Archean deformation converted the Nova Lima basin into an ample synclinorium with an eastern inverted flank. Archean orogenic gold mineralization within the Rio das Velhas greenstone belt rocks is controlled by NNW–SSE-directed, Archean regional shear zones subparallel to the strata of the Nova Lima synclinorium borders. Transamazonian and Brasiliano orogenies are superposed onto the Archean structures that control gold mineralization. In the eastern domain, Brasiliano fold-and-fault belts prevail, whereas in the western domain Archean and Transamazonian structures abound. The present study focus mainly is the western domain where the Cuiabá, Morro Velho, Raposos, Lamego and Faria deposits are located. Gold orebodies plunge to the E–NE and are tectonically controlled by the Archean D1–D2 deformation. The D3 Transamazonian compression—Which had a SE–NW vector sub-parallel to the regional mineralized Archean foliation/bedding—Buckled these structures, resulting in commonly open, synformal and antiformal regional folds. These are well documented near the gold deposits, with NE–SW axial traces and fold axes plunging to E–NE. Such folds are normal to inverted, NW-verging, with an axial planar foliation dipping moderately to the SE. The Transamazonian compression has only been responsible for the reorientation of the mineralized Archean gold ores, due to coaxial refolding characterized by an opposite tectonic transport. It has therefore not caused any other significant changes. Thrust shear zones, sub-parallel to the strong Transamazonian foliation, have given rise to localized metric segmentation and to the dislocation of gold orebodies. Throughout the region, along the towns of Nova Lima to Sabará, structures pertaining to the Brasiliano Araçuaí orogeny are represented only by gentle folding and by a discrete, non-pervasive crenulation cleavage. Thrust-shear zones and small-scale normal faults have caused, at most, metric dislocations along N–S-oriented planes.

Characterization and geochronology of Archean metasedimentary sequences in the eastern portion of Rio das Velhas greenstone belt, Quadrilátero Ferrífero, Brazil

The Quadrilátero Ferrífero (QF) is an important, polydeformed mineral province, located in the southernmost portion of São Francisco Craton. The Rio das Velhas greenstone belt (RVGB) is an Archean meta-volcano-sedimentary succession from the QF, the Córrego do Sítio unit (CdS) being its most widely distributed sedimentary sequence. Detailed sedimentology study allied to x-ray diffraction-XRD and geochronological (LA-ICP-MS in detrital zircon) analyses provide evidence for a new interpretation of the CdS. The identified sedimentary structures of the CdS (e.g. flaser and lenticular bedding, sharp and erosional base, normal grading, mud drapes, quartz granules, syndepositional deformation, and ball & pillow) led the interpretation of these couplets as turbidity currents deposits corresponding to TA and TE facies of the classic Bouma Sequence. The CdS sequence was deposited on distal portions of an ancient submarine fan environment by turbidity current mechanisms, then it was partially reworked by tidal bottom currents. Geochronological data pointed out the main influence of the Rio das Velhas II magmatic event in the deposition of the eastern QF metasedimentary sequence, as evidenced by the maximum depositional age at 2818 ± 31 Ma. The surrounding metamorphic complexes terrains may have acted as source areas during the deposition of the sedimentary sequences, probably in a convergent to a collisional marginal tectonic setting (subduction stage).

Physical volcanology and petrogenesis of the Archean Quebra Osso komatiite flow field, Rio das Velhas greenstone belt, Quadrilátero Ferrífero (Brazil)

The Quebra Osso komatiite flow field is part of the 2.9–2.7 Ga Rio das Velhas greenstone belt, in the Quadrilátero Ferrífero province, located in the Southern São Francisco craton (Brazil). It is mostly composed of metamorphosed komatiites with a minor association of pyroclastic and metasedimentary rocks. Through a detailed and systematic study, the komatiite flows were subdivided into coherent facies (massive, layered, and pillowed facies) and autoclastic facies (autobreccias and hyaloclastites), formed by effusive flows; and minor pyroclastic facies (tuffs and lapilli-tuffs) that are related to explosive flows. The igneous textures are still preserved, although their primary minerals (olivine and pyroxene) were completely pseudomorphosed by serpentine and/or chlorite. The major proportion of the komatiites of Quebra Osso Group is massive and cumulate-textured, which suggests channelized flow systems. The layered flows are subordinate and encompass an upper zone of random spinifex that grades to a lower cumulate zone. They are restricted to the marginal zones and interpreted as breakouts of lava from the main pathway. The occurrence of pillow lavas, hyaloclastites, and chemical sediments suggests that lavas erupted in a submarine environment. The abundance of autobreccias and local hybrid rocks point out to turbulent percolation of komatiites and/or multiple influxes of melts that caused the fragmentation of the solidified lava and magma mixing/mingling. The studied komatiites were variably affected by hydration due to seafloor alteration, regional metamorphism, and hydrothermal alteration. The mineral assemblage is secondary and comprises serpentine (mostly antigorite), chlorite, tremolite, talc, carbonate, and opaque minerals as accessory phases. The chemical composition of chromites suggests metamorphic overprint up to lower amphibolite facies conditions. Some komatiites are enriched in LREE (La, Sm, Nd), Rb, Ba, Th, Zr, Ti, and Y, and exhibit low [Nb/Th]MN, suggesting contamination by continental crustal. The bulk-rock and the mineral chemistry of amphibole, serpentine/chlorite, and chromite show enrichment of Al and decrease in Si contents in the spinifex-textured komatiites, as a result of crustal material assimilation and/or hybridization processes. The partial melting model for the HREE composition refers to a 50% batch melting of a garnet-free source with a composition similar to the pyrolytic mantle. The formation of Quebra Osso komatiite lavas is associated with the ascension of a mantle plume that was subsequently erupted onto the Archean sialic crust of the Santa Bárbara Complex and was later reworked by subsequent metamorphic and deformational events.

Multi-process and multi-scale spatial predictive analysis of an orogenic Archean gold system, Rio das Velhas Greenstone Belt, Brazil

There has always been a need for new methodologies and research to improve the decision-making process at the early stages of mineral exploration. This article presents a novel approach to integrating geodata in support of a mineral systems-based spatial analysis of orogenic gold deposits in the Rio das Velhas Greenstone Belt (RVGB), Quadrilátero Ferrífero Province, Brazil. The gold mineralization in the RVGB is spatially associated with thrust faults and shear zones and mainly hosted by iron-rich rocks such as mafic–ultramafic sequences and banded iron formations. To best represent the targeting elements of this mineral system spatially, a knowledge-based fuzzy logic method was employed to map the expressions of the gold depositional processes at the province (1:500,000), district (1:100,000) and camp (1:50,000) scales. At each scale, multivariate statistical techniques served to enhance multiple geological, geophysical, and geochemical datasets and extract from these data spatial proxies of the gold depositional processes. The results of this multi-scale predictive analysis were as follows: The first, province-scale model (M1) identified the entire gold prospective tract and the areas within it that may be of greatest relevance to future exploration. The second, district-scale model (M2) identified the different gold camps within the prospective tract and mapped the areas of gold favorability in a more detailed manner. The third, camp-scale model (M3) identified areas that, based on the current knowledge and distribution of high resolution geodata, are the most favorable whilst also being small enough as to permit target testing using conventional mineral exploration tools such as geophysics, geochemistry and/or drilling. The results obtained from our predictive models were validated by comparing them against the known gold occurrences using ROC (receiver operating characteristics) curves and AUC (area under the curve) graphs. According to these validations, model M1 scored an accuracy of 93.38%, whereas models M2 and M3 scored accuracies of 88.31% and 93.38%, respectively. A key observation made in the course of this study is that the gold prospective area as predicted by models M1, M2 and M3 varies according to the scale of the analysis. A novel factor in our approach is that we aimed assess the targeting criteria and spatial datasets that underpin them according to their spatial resolution and presented the results in form of integrated maps. In addition, the tools developed in this study have the capacity to reduce the cost of direct detection technologies regarding the transition from broad regional to camp scale at the early stages of mineral exploration, where the most initial decisions in search and area reduction are critical.

Fluid signature of the shear zone–controlled Veio de Quartzo ore body in the world-class BIF-hosted Cuiabá gold deposit, Archaean Rio das Velhas greenstone belt, Brazil: a fluid inclusion study

The world-class Cuiaba gold deposit of the Archaean Rio das Velhas greenstone belt in Brazil is hosted in banded iron formation containing carbonaceous matter and carbonate, within the reclined, isoclinal Cuiaba fold. Mineralised quartz veins are hosted in andesite in the stratigraphic footwall of the banded iron ores and form some of the more recently discovered ore bodies. Fluid inclusion data of the quartz vein–associated “Veio de Quartzo” ore body are obtained from four quartz types (Qz1, Qz2, Qz3, Qz5) in gold-mineralised V1 shear vein and V2 extensional veins, barren V3 extensional vein array, and V4 breccia-style veins, all developed during the Archaean D1 event. Three fluid types are distinguished: (i) aqueous fluids of low salinity (1.8–3.8 wt% NaCl equiv), homogenisation (into liquid) at 220 to 230 °C; (ii) aqueous fluids of moderate salinity (5.3–12.7 wt% NaCl equiv), and homogenisation at 250 to 290 °C; and (iii) aqueous-carbonic fluids of moderate salinity (6.0–15.1 wt% NaCl equiv), with 30–91 mol% CO2, 8–41 mol% CH4 and up to 28 mol% N2 and decrepitation (into vapour) at 280 to 310 °C. Based on an independent pressure estimate, a pressure correction was applied to aqueous fluid inclusions, resulting in minimum trapping temperatures at 360 °C for V1 veins, 330 °C for V2 veins, 300 °C for V3 veins and 270 °C for the late-stage V4 veins. Ion chromatography analyses reveal a Br/Cl ratio of 0.7 × 10−3 in Qz1-V1, from 1.4 to 1.5 × 10−3 in Qz2-V2, 0.3 to 0.4 × 10−3 in Qz3-V3 and 0.7 to 0.9 × 10−3in Qz5-V4 veins. Zinc, Pb and Cu are relatively enriched with ~ 100 to 1000 ppm in aqueous and aqueous-carbonic fluid inclusion assemblages in all vein and quartz types, which is similar to other orogenic gold deposits hosted in the Rio das Velhas greenstone belt. The fluid inclusion data are consistent with a model invoking a metamorphic origin for the mineralising fluid. A two-step model of hydrothermal fluid flow and gold enrichment is suggested to have developed during the Archaean D1 event, with an early, aqueous-carbonic fluid pulse of relatively high temperature (from V1 up to V3) and an evolved, aqueous-carbonic fluid pulse of lower temperature (V4, breccia-style veins). The Rio das Velhas greenstone belt is dominated by regionally metamorphosed metasedimentary rocks, resulting in a complex hydrothermal fluid evolution and related gold mineralisation such as the shear zone–controlled Veio de Quartzo ore body.

Geochronological evolution of the Pitangui greenstone belt, southern São Francisco Craton, Brazil: Constraints from U-Pb zircon age, geochemistry and field relationships

The Pitangui greenstone belt (PGB) – located in the southern São Francisco Craton, (Brazil) – is a volcano-sedimentary assemblage that is tectonically imbricated over the orthogneiss and granitoid rocks collectively termed the Divinópolis Complex. One diorite gneiss sample from the northern Divinópolis Complex yields an igneous zircon age of 2878 ± 5.7 Ma, constraining the time of crystallization. The basal sequence of PGB predominantly comprise metabasalt with restricted bodies of metagabbro/metadiorite, metaultramafic volcanic rocks and BIF. The upper sequences of the PGB exhibit a maturation of the basin, grading to more felsic and sedimentary lithologies, such as clastic metasedimentary rocks, intermediate metavolcanic rocks, and metapyroclastic rocks. The first recognized deformation phase in the PGB (Dn) is associated with greenschist facies conditions and the development of the main tectonic foliation. The second deformation phase (Dn+1) is associated with amphibolite facies metamorphism, while a later (Dn+2) phase may be related to younger Proterozoic deformation (ca. 2.0 Ga). PGB metabasalts yield a crystallization age of 2740.2 ± 12 Ma and are characterized by a tholeiitic affinity and flat LREE patterns. Based on mixed MORB- and arc-affinities, a back-arc basin setting is suggested for the formation of PGB basalt. This mafic magmatism (2740 Ma) is slightly younger than the ages reported for the Rio das Velhas greenstone belt, with which the PGB is generally correlated. The metasedimentary rocks of the PGB have age intervals spanning from 2690 to 3250 Ma. One mica-quartz phyllite has a maximum depositional age of 2769.8 ± 8.9 Ma while a chlorite phyllite records and age of 2693.2 ± 7.9 Ma. The metasedimentary rocks are derived from a source area of mafic to felsic composition that is similar to TTGs, cratonic Archean shales and E-MORB. The predominant sources were likely the sialic Archean crust of the granite-gneiss complexes (e.g. the Divinópolis Complex and potassic granitoids of the Mamona Event) and the mafic sequences of the arc (e.g. PGB back-arc basalt). One late potassic pluton (Casquilho monzogranite) crosscutting the fabrics of the volcano-sedimentary assemblage and yields an intrusion age of 2694.7 ± 9 Ma, constraining the minimum sedimentation age assembly of the package. Collectively, a Neoarchean primitive island arc or back-arc basin is proposed to have generated the PGB, which is here interpreted as distinct from the Rio das Velhas greenstone belt. We suggest that PGB developed during an accretion-collision event in the southern São Francisco Craton before cratonic stabilization of the crust by the end of the potassic 2760-2680 Ma Mamona Event.

Insights into orogenic processes from drab schists and minor intrusions: Southern São Francisco Craton, Brazil

Minor altered intrusions and drab retrogressed schists can easily be overlooked in geological studies but this contribution explores these rocks within the Archaean and Palaeoproterozoic southern São Francisco Craton (SSFC), Brazil using geological relationships and accessory mineral in situ analyses in the context of cratonic assembly. Three magmatic pulses are documented: i) Archaean and ii) Palaeoproterozoic felsic intrusions, both hosted by Archaean protoliths, and iii) Palaeoproterozoic felsic intrusions in Palaeoproterozoic supracrustal sequences. Archaean felsic intrusions confirm the Palaeoarchaean age of the mafic/ultramafic sequence of the Rio das Velhas Greenstone Belt and Rhyacian intrusions mark the collisional stage of the Mineiro Belt with the SFC at c. 2130 Ma. Greenstone belt schists show a wide distribution of rounded ‘soccer ball’ Archaean detrital and metamorphic zircon grains ranging in age from 3200 to 2750 Ma with an interpreted overprinting high-grade metamorphic event at c. 2700 to 2680 Ma. Most high-grade metamorphic rims have Th/U > 0.1, negative εHf(t) values and REE pattern consistent with eclogite/granulite metamorphic facies, reinforcing the hypothesis of a dehydrated-refractory crust formed during the stabilization of the SSFC, even though no such protoliths are preserved. This event links crustal thickening and partial melting of Archaean lower crust. Archaean rutile crystals from the greenstone belt schist were reset during the Palaeoproterozoic event but still preserve the early Archaean high-grade metamorphic signature. The presence of unstable ilmenite replaced by rutile in the schist, associated to felsic intrusions with the same age at c. 2130 Ma suggest high pressure, low temperature prograde metamorphism during the collisional stage of the Palaeoproterozoic orogen. Elongate and prismatic zircon grains from the Rhyacian intrusions have low εHf(t) signature and crystallised from partial melting of sedimentary protoliths. Accretionary events produced thicker and more differentiated crust by the end of Rhyacian time. Easily overlooked rocks in this study, when studied, have revealed a rich multi-event history of cratonic evolution.

Depositional model for banded iron formation host to gold in the Archean Rio das Velhas greenstone belt, Brazil, based on geochemistry and LA-ICP-MS magnetite analyses

Petrographic and geochemical data were obtained for selected carbonaceous and siderite-bearing chert and banded iron formation (BIF) from the Archean Rio das Velhas greenstone belt (RVGB), Quadrilátero Ferrífero, including seven orogenic gold deposits (Cuiabá, Lamego, Raposos, Roça Grande, São Bento, Urubu and Ápis) and two barren BIFs (Sumidouro and Campo Grande). The RVGB has Algoma-type BIFs that differ in terms of lithological association, mineralogical assemblage and geochemistry. Trace element geochemistry of the BIFs is used to investigate their depositional environment, and to evaluate if primary geochemical and petrographic features have implications for gold mineralization. The chert layers of the Lamego and Urubu deposits exhibit significant, positive Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu*PAAS = 1.57–4.01) and low contents of immobile elements (Al2O3 = <0.34 wt%, TiO2 = <0.02 wt%), suggesting a high contribution of hydrothermal fluid in their formation, with relatively low detrital input. The carbonate- and the magnetite-rich BIF of the Cuiabá, Roça Grande, Ápis and Raposos deposits display Eu/Eu*PAAS = 1.34–3.25; Al2O3 = 0.04–1.47 wt%, TiO2 = <0.03 wt%, interpreted to represent an intermediate contribution of hydrothermal fluid, as well as limited detrital input. The São Bento, Campo Grande and Sumidouro BIF show a significant mineralogical variability including magnetite, carbonate and iron-rich silicates. Their Eu/Eu*PAAS = 1.1–2.6; Al2O3 = 0.11–6.82 wt%, TiO2 = 0.03–0.33 wt% suggest high detrital input and low hydrothermal fluid influence. Textural relations and mineral assemblages of magnetite-rich samples indicate three main generations of this mineral: (i) diagenetic (very low grade metamorphic), (ii) early and (iii) main-stage hydrothermal. Laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) analyses show that Ti, V, Ni and Co contents of magnetite systematically fluctuate. Their concentrations of Ti (50–677 ppm), V (11–207 ppm), Ni (8–166 ppm) and Co (3–14 ppm) in magnetite (i) are the highest comparatively to types (ii) and (iii) (Ti = 7–352 ppm; V = 0.2–59 ppm; Ni = 1–22 ppm; Co = 0.1–7 ppm). Even higher trace element content of the Sumidouro (i) is related to important clastic input to seawater during BIF deposition. The composition of magnetite types (ii) and (iii) is dependent on coexisting minerals (sulfides, carbonates and silicates), and on the type of mechanism of their formation (dissolution-reprecipitation, or re-equilibration). The mineralogical, geochemical and geological diversity of the RVGB BIFs, as well as magnetite composition in BIF, point to a depositional model for the RVGB BIF within the Rio das Velhas basin related to both proximity to the hydrothermal vent and of terrigenous sedimentary input.Deposition of chert layers (e.g., Lamego and Urubu deposits) was favored near the hydrothermal vents on the abyssal plain due to high concentration of silica and organic carbon. Away from the hydrothermal source, chert transitioned to carbonate-rich BIF, typical of Cuiabá, Roça Grande and Ápis, which still formed under the influence of organic matter. Magnetite-rich BIF, i.e. Raposos deposit, was deposited further away from the volcanic center, with limited supply of organic carbon and silica. In a submarine environment with greater clastic input, such as continental shelfs and island arcs, BIF composition was influenced by detrital contamination, and iron-rich silicates (i.e., stilpnomelane and chlorite) are common, besides magnetite and carbonate; this is the case for the São Bento, Campo Grande and Sumidouro BIFs. The BIF types with abundant iron-rich carbonate and-or magnetite host gold mineralization more efficiently since they are especially favorable to sulfides replacement accompanied by gold precipitation.

Two billion years of evolution enclosed in hydrothermal rutile: Recycling of the São Francisco Craton Crust and constraints on gold remobilisation processes

The Quadrilátero Ferrífero in the São Francisco Craton, Brazil is known for its world-class gold deposits hosted by the Rio das Velhas greenstone belt (RdV). As in other greenstone belts, gold is also concentrated in late Archean/early Paleoproterozoic supracrustal units; in this case within the Moeda Formation. This unit has been compared to the Witwatersrand basin where there has been a long-term debate over the nature of the gold and whether it is detrital (placer), hydrothermal or hybrid (modified placer). Presently, links between gold in the Moeda Formation and RdV are tenuous. To enlighten this area of ambiguity, a new approach using chemical, isotopic and mineral inclusion data from detrital rutile found in the gold-bearing horizons of the Moeda Formation is presented. Grain textures and mineral inclusions have contributed to establishing a primary hydrothermal origin for the rutile, related to As-Fe-Cu-Sb-Pb-W rich mineralising fluids. Fe, Nb and V indicate that the likely source of the gold-related rutiles is the Archean banded iron formations within the RdV, where most of the lode-gold occurs. Average Nb/Ta values of these rutiles are lower than average continental crust ratios which suggests fractionation driven by fluid precipitation and/or competing mineral phases. U-Pb data yield primary crystallization ages older than deposition ages (>2.58 Ga), supporting the detrital nature of these rutiles. Rutiles record either resetting or new growth at 2.1 Ga and at ca. 500 Ma, during which gold was remobilised. Hence, this study supports a modified placer model for the gold-bearing horizons of the Moeda Formation. These fluid-assisted gold remobilisation events can be found in other correlated Paleoproterozoic gold-bearing horizon units that represent intracratonic basins related to the rifting of the Kenorland Supercontinent. This study reinforces the suitability of rutile and mineral inclusions as a powerful tool to elucidate processes and provenance.

Multistage mineralization at the hypozonal São Sebastião gold deposit, Pitangui greenstone belt, Minas Gerais, Brazil

São Sebastião is a recently discovered Archean gold deposit at the northwesternmost part of the Quadrilátero Ferrífero (QF), southern São Francisco craton, Brazil. The gold ore is strata-confined in two levels of banded iron formation (BIF) of the basal stratigraphic unit in the Pitangui greenstone belt (2.8 Ga). Pitangui is correlated to the widely known Rio das Velhas greenstone belt, which hosts several orogenic gold deposits such as the world-class Cuiabá. The gold mineralization at São Sebastião is associated to replacement-style sulfidation over magnetite, where the main developed phases are: pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite, pyrite and arsenian-pyrite. Native Au occurs as inclusions in pyrrhotite formed at dilatation domains (e.g., breccias, fold hinges) during compressional events (Rio das Velhas Orogeny at 2.8–2.75 Ga), but mainly as inclusions in late- to post-kinematic pyrite and arsenopyrite, as fracture infills in arsenopyrite and in contact with gangue minerals. Electron-microprobe analyses in arsenopyrite reveal a 465–560 °C precipitation temperature interpreted from As atomic percentage and indicate that high-temperature fluids were active after the deformational event. The temperature increase caused the incorporation of LA-ICP-MS-detected lattice-bound Ni and Co in arsenian-pyrite and arsenopyrite, related to the mafic-ultramafic signature of boundary rocks. High temperature conditions are supported by pyrite and ISS (intermediate-solid solution in the Cu-Fe-S system) formation at 600 °C and melting-derived textures resulting from the precipitation of Bi- and As-melts, typical of amphibolite-facies environments with high fS2. Whole-rock geochemical assays of drill core samples display two clear trends on Ag, Bi, Cu vs. Au binary plots and on principal component analysis results. The trends are a product of the heterogeneous spatial distribution of melts and high-temperature fluids. Melting features and superposition of mineralization styles are common in hypozonal gold deposits experiencing higher heat influx. At São Sebastião, the thermal effect is likely related to the 2.7 Ga granitic intrusions that surround the Pitangui belt. São Sebastião shows distinct characteristics than those described for the mesozonal gold deposits in the Rio das Velhas greenstone belt and may depict the deeper roots of the QF gold system.

Geochemistry of komatiites and basalts from the Rio das Velhas and Pitangui greenstone belts, São Francisco Craton, Brazil: Implications for the origin, evolution, and tectonic setting

The Neoarchean Rio das Velhas and Pitangui greenstone belts are situated in the southern São Francisco Craton, Minas Gerais, Brazil. These greenstone belts were formed between ca. 2.79–2.73Ga, and consist mostly of mafic to ultramafic volcanics and clastic sediments, with minor chemical sediments and felsic volcanics that were metamorphosed under greenschist facies. Komatiites are found only in the Rio das Velhas greenstone belt, which is composed of high-MgO volcanic rocks that have been identified as komatiites and high-Mg basalts, based on their distinctive geochemical characteristics. The Rio das Velhas komatiites are composed of tremolite+actinolite+serpentine+albite with a relict spinifex-texture. The Rio das Velhas komatiites have a high magnesium content ((MgO)adj≥28wt.%), an Al-undepleted Munro-type [(Al2O3/TiO2)adj and (CaO/Al2O3)adj] ratio ranging from 27 to 47 and 0.48 to 0.89, relatively low abundances of incompatible elements, a depletion of light rare earth elements (LREE), a pattern of non-fractionated heavy rare- earth elements (HREE), and a low (Gd/Yb)PM ratio (≤1.0). Negative Ce anomalies suggest that alteration occurred during greenschist facies metamorphism for the komatiites and high-Mg basalts. The low [(Gd/Yb)PM<1.0] and [(CaO/Al2O3)adj<0.9)], high [(Al2O3/TiO2)adj>18] and high HREE, Y, and Zr content suggest that the Rio das Velhas komatiites were derived from the shallow upper mantle without garnet involvement in the residue. The chemical compositions [(Al2O3/TiO2)adj, (FeO)adj, (MgO)adj, (CaO/Al2O3)adj, Na, Th, Ta, Ni, Cr, Zr, Y, Hf, and REE] indicate that the formation of the komatiites, high-Mg basalts and basalts occurred at different depths and temperatures in a heterogeneous mantle. The komatiites and high-Mg basalts melted at liquidus temperatures of ~1450–1550°C. The Pitangui basalts are enriched in the highly incompatible LILE (large-ion lithophile elements) relative to the moderately incompatible HFS (high field strength) elements. The Zr/Th ratio ranging from 76 to 213 and the relationship between the Nb/Th and Th/Yb ratios indicate that there is no crustal contamination in the Pitangui greenstone basalts. New multi-dimensional discrimination diagrams and conventional normalized multi-element diagrams indicate an island arc (IA) setting for the komatiites and high-Mg basalts from the Rio das Velhas and a mid ocean-ridge (MOR) to IA setting for the basalts from the Pitangui greenstone belts.

Geology of the Pitangui greenstone belt, Minas Gerais, Brazil: Stratigraphy, geochronology and BIF geochemistry

Based on drillcore description of rocks at the São Sebastião gold deposit and surroundings a new geological map and a detailed stratigraphic column are presented for the Pitangui greenstone belt, which is located northwest of the Quadrilátero Ferrífero, southern São Francisco craton, Brazil. This belt comprises three units: a Lower Unit predominantly of metavolcanic ultramafic and mafic rocks interbedded with thinner metasedimentary intervals of banded iron formations (BIFs), turbiditic metasandstones and metapelites; a Middle Unit of turbiditic metasediments interbedded with metavolcanic intermediary rocks, minor BIFs and quartzites; and an Upper Unit composed of quartzites and polymictic metaconglomerates. Rocks of all three units are metamorphosed under upper greenschist to lower amphibolite facies conditions and are bounded by domes (TTGs and late- to post-tectonic alkaline granitoids). The Pitangui greenstone belt records the geologic evolution of an ancient oceanic basin that evolved from a thick succession of metavolcanic ultramafic and mafic rocks interbedded with metasedimentary intervals of BIFs and turbidites; the latter representing moments of quiescence in volcanic activity. This basin experienced a transient period dominated by andesitic volcanism, turbidite deposition and minor BIF, and a final stage of clastic-only sedimentation at the same time when volcanic activity ceased. Combined U–Pb and Lu–Hf isotope data of detrital zircon from Lower Unit metasandstone revealed a maximum depositional age of 2859±11Ma. This age is similar to those found in the basal unit of the Nova Lima Group (2.90–2.78Ga) in the Rio das Velhas greenstone belt, located approximately 100km southeast. Both belts can be correlated on the basis of similarities in stratigraphy and isotopic ages, indicating that they possibly represent parts of an ancient larger domain. Geochemical data of BIF coupled with stratigraphic analysis place constraints on paleoenvironmental conditions during the development of the Mesoarchean Pitangui greenstone belt. Shale-normalized rare-earth elements (REE+Y) in some BIF samples display negative cerium (Ce) anomalies, which may be interpreted as evidence for the oldest oxygenation pulse documented in Brazil to date (2.86–2.78Ga). Such anomalies endorse the presence of episodic periods of seawater oxygenation before the Great Oxidation Event.

The detrital zircon record of an Archaean convergent basin in the Southern São Francisco Craton, Brazil

Detrital zircon ages are an important tool to study the provenance and evolution of sedimentary rocks, and currently there is a general lack of such studies in greenstone belt basins. In this paper, we combine field observations and in situ U–Pb/Lu–Hf detrital zircon analyses to constrain the evolution of a large, ancient convergent basin in SE Brazil. The Maquiné Group (the uppermost clastic sequence of the Rio das Velhas Greenstone Belt) was deposited during a fundamental shift in the evolution of the southern São Francisco Craton that ended with closure of the greenstone belt basin and the stabilization of the continental crust at ca. 2730–2700Ma. We show that detritus accumulated in the Maquiné basin derived from uplifted nearby source rocks and that sedimentation was marked by drastic upward lithological changes (from flysch to molasse-type sedimentation). The restricted distributary provenance (marked by a strong uni-modal age spectra at 2770–2780Ma) requires that sedimentation was concomitant with exhumation of a proximal 2770–2780Ma TTG magmatic arc. The entire detrital zircon spectra show that maximum deposition ages are very close to the timing of deposition, and confirm that deposition occurred during or immediately after tectonic convergence. Variations in ɛHf(t) values support the idea that the Archaean crystalline crust of the craton was built by crust–mantle mixing processes with a successive decrease of values in zircons crystallized after 3100Ma. In a regional context, our dataset supports previous interpretations of a long-lived evolution of the southern São Francisco Craton comprising a succession of magmatic arcs and Archaean convergent basins.