Usufruct Rights Research Articles

P.1.c.021 Protective effect of Anacyclus pyrethrum against seizures and seizure-induced cognitive impairment in rats

India's biodiversity encompasses a wide spectrum of habitats that include tropical rainforests, alpine vegetation, temperate forests, and coastal wetlands. Traditional societies have paid a great deal of attention to the study of nature conservation. Although Himalaya accounts for 18% of the total area in India, it covers more than 31.05% of India's forest cover and 40% of the species endemic to the Indian Sub-continent. Many mountain societies hence maintained a holistic view of the socio-ecological system. An expression of this relationship is represented in the form of sacred landscape which is a concept identified by many traditional societies and often protected by cultural and religious values. Many protected areas contain sites of importance to one or more faiths. These include both sacred natural sites and built monuments (such as monasteries, temples, shrines, and pilgrimage trails). Enforcement in these protected areas has created a lot of conflicts between the local people and protected area managers, due to the restrictions enforced by these managers against the traditional usufruct rights of the local people. These conflicts tend to act as major hurdles to achieving biodiversity conservation. Conservation of biological resources through religion and belief has a long history in Garhwal Himalaya. This article aims to document the different ethics enshrined within the Hindu community that have an inherent role in the conservation of biodiversity in Uttarakhand Himalaya.

Conserving biodiversity through traditional beliefs in sacred groves in Uttarakhand Himalaya, India

India's biodiversity encompasses a wide spectrum of habitats that include tropical rainforests, alpine vegetation, temperate forests, and coastal wetlands. Traditional societies have paid a great deal of attention to the study of nature conservation. Although Himalaya accounts for 18% of the total area in India, it covers more than 31.05% of India's forest cover and 40% of the species endemic to the Indian Sub-continent. Many mountain societies hence maintained a holistic view of the socio-ecological system. An expression of this relationship is represented in the form of sacred landscape which is a concept identified by many traditional societies and often protected by cultural and religious values. Many protected areas contain sites of importance to one or more faiths. These include both sacred natural sites and built monuments (such as monasteries, temples, shrines, and pilgrimage trails). Enforcement in these protected areas has created a lot of conflicts between the local people and protected area managers, due to the restrictions enforced by these managers against the traditional usufruct rights of the local people. These conflicts tend to act as major hurdles to achieving biodiversity conservation. Conservation of biological resources through religion and belief has a long history in Garhwal Himalaya. This article aims to document the different ethics enshrined within the Hindu community that have an inherent role in the conservation of biodiversity in Uttarakhand Himalaya.

Top-down or bottom-up?: Decentralization, natural resource management, and usufruct rights in the forests and wetlands of western Uganda

Natural resources, and their management, have played an important role in shaping Uganda's national identity since 1986. Through Uganda's decentralization agenda, the perception of unprotected forests and wetlands have gone from being wasteland and essentially ignored in the political arena, to key elements in securing livelihoods and important topics within political platforms. Despite the successes of government decentralization and legislated devolution of rights and responsibilities to the local level, mandated regulations instituted by the central government can remain ignored or unheard of locally. What governs local resource use is a combination of prescriptive national legislation and regulations, local by-laws, and perceived ownership. Usufruct rights of forests and wetlands largely depend on local circumstances, which are unique to individual communities or particular forests and wetlands. This paper describes the entwined recent history of decentralization and natural resource management legislation in Uganda. We then present a case study of local perceptions of access and use of unprotected wetlands and forests in western Uganda. We show that there is confusion among local residents and village leaders with regards to access and use of these areas despite prescribed national legislation. We suggest that better operational success of resource management at the local level could be achieved by disseminating information at multiple levels. This need is particularly pressing in the more remote areas of the country where forest and wetlands face enormous pressure from high population growth and heavy human reliance on natural resources.

From a legal perspective to see the evolution and transformation of land tenure institutions in China

Through the discussion of property rights of land in the People’s Republic of China by examining the evolution of legal frameworks governing land institutions and that of the rights embodied, it traces out the development of urban and rural land tenure changes during the pre-reform era (pre-1978) and post-reform era (post-1978). Analysis shows that after thirty years of opening up and orientation towards a market economy, there is still a wide divergence of rights between urban and rural land tenure. Quasi-leasehold system of urban land tenure, accompanied by relatively well-established titling and registration procedures as well as an open market for transaction, has been established. In contrast, although the rural land contracting system has endowed farmers with thirty years of agricultural land usufruct rights and attempts to strengthen farmers’ tenure security have been made progressively over the years, farmers are yet not enjoying the full bundles of land rights. Imminent reforms in rural land tenure includes, but not restricted to, the following crucial areas: Farmers’ right to mortgage their land, a well-functioning land market, well-defined and just causes for land requisition written in law, a clear delineation of the different roles and rights of the collective and individual farmers.

Embracing collaborative protected area management for conservation: an analysis of the development of the forest policy of Bangladesh

SUMMARY With the history and experiences of more than one hundred years in formulation and revisions since the British colonial period, the forest policy of Bangladesh has turned away from a traditional production premises towards protection. Establishing protected areas for biodiversity conservation dates back to the 1960s. The strategy gained impetus with the passage of national legislation in 1973 that included the provision of declaring forests as national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and game reserves for the protection of the natural forest resources. Due to the absence of a clear demarcation between core areas and buffer zones and the absence of concern for the sustention of local communities' usufruct rights, degradation continued in the protected areas. Therefore, an alternative strategy of co-management involving local stakeholders and provision of incentives in terms of Alternative Income Generation (AIG) supports has been introduced by the government under a donor assisted project. This new pol...

THE ROLE OF PARTICIPATORY SOCIAL FORESTRY IN THE ENHANCEMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE RURAL POOR: A CASE STUDY OF DHAKA FOREST DIVISION IN BANGLADESH

ABSTRACT The people of Bangladesh, a densely populated country, depend heavily on forests for fuel wood, timber and other subsistence. Due to huge biotic and abiotic pressure, forest resources of the country have been depleted greatly. Participatory social forestry was introduced in Bangladesh in early 1980s to reduce the rampant rate of deforestation. Few studies are available on social forestry in Bangladesh. This research was done in degraded Sal (Shorea robusta) forests under the Dhaka Forest Division. Due to its location in the central part of the country, this forest is subject to tremendous illicit cutting and land encroachment. The research was focused on the role of participatory social forestry in the enhancement of the socioeconomic condition of the poor. All three types of plantation (viz. woodlots, agroforestry plantings and strip plantations) raised under social forestry were financially profitable. Net Present Values to the poor (NPV) were highest in the strip plantations (US$ 7,857) followed by woodlot plantations (US$ 4,350) and lowest in agroforestry plantings (US$ 4,222). On an average, each participant received, US$ 3,338, US$ 3,092 and US$ 1,786 from the, woodlot plantations, agroforestry plantings and strip plantations respectively. This additional forest based income was a significant contribution to the improvement of the socio-economic conditions of the poor. It is found that individuals recognized as encroachers in the past, have now become vital stakeholders in forests and recognized members in their community. Negative findings of the programmes are that after 25 years of social forestry practice in Bangladesh, poor people still remain skeptical towards the programme due to various administrative blocks and shortcomings and a lack of policy instruments such as the granting of usufruct rights that affect the sustainability of the programme. Nevertheless compared with the failures of traditional forest management, participatory social forestry is a far better option.

Indigenes' and migrants' access to land in peri-urban areas of Accra, Ghana

In many parts of the developing world, it has been observed that growing population pressure and the development of market economies as a cause and consequence of urbanisation are leading to significant changes in land tenure practices and related rights. Increasingly, land rights in urban and peri-urban areas are becoming more individualised and privatised, in contrast to communal or usufruct rights. Using questionnaire surveys and focus group discussions, this article explores migrants' and indigenes' access to peri-urban land in Ghana's largest metropolis, Accra. The study found that an increase in land transactions due to the emergence of land markets in this land-scarce area of Ghana is resulting in usufruct and inheritance rights over land under customary tenure regimes no longer being guaranteed, as many people belonging to land-owing families (indigenes) in peri-urban Accra are left to compete for less land with migrants or strangers. The implications of this situation for urban development in Gha...

Ethiopia: Reforming Land Tenure

Land policy in Ethiopia has been controversial since the fall of the military socialist derg regime in 1991. While the current Ethiopian government has implemented a land policy that is based on state ownership of land (where only usufruct rights are given to land holders), many agricultural economists and international donor agencies have propagated some form of privatized land ownership. This article traces the antagonistic arguments of the two schools of thought in the land reform debate and how their antagonistic principles ‐ fairness vs. efficiency ‐ are played out. It then goes on to explore how these different arguments have trickled down in the formulation of the federal and regional land policies with a particular view on the new Oromia regional land policy as it is considered the most progressive (with regards to tenure security). We provide some empirical material on ongoing practices of implementing the Rural Land Use and Administration Proclamation of Oromia Region. Our analysis suggests that while the laws are conceptual hybrids that accommodate both fairness and efficiency considerations, regional bureaucrats have selectively implemented those elements of the proclamation that are considered to strengthen the regime’s political support in the countryside.

The evolving concepts of land administration in China: Cultivated land protection perspective

This paper presents a holistic method by integrating three concepts (land resources management, assets supervision and political governance for sustainability) for investigation of land administration in China, taking into consideration of cultivated land protection for a testimony with econometric method. Theoretically, in this self-organizing integrated method, land resources management focuses on the productivity of land; land assets supervision centralizes on the realization of land usufruct rights in land transference; land political governance for sustainability concentrates on harmonious linkage of economic efficiency, social stability and environmental safety of land use. Their interrelations are complex. Methodologically, the results indicate that the theoretical model is feasible to explain variations of cultivated land protection with these three concepts. Cultivated land decreases with increasing land value increment multiples, and is positive with political governance concept, but not in a linear fashion. Finally the results suggest that roles of government in land administration need to be changed and strengthened, supporting complete compensation for land expropriation and modification to policies of cultivated land.

Land markets in late imperial and republican China

ABSTRACTChina has had very active markets for both the sale and the rental of land since Song times (960–1279), if not longer. By the sixteenth century, most of the institutional arrangements that would characterize these markets until 1949 were in place. These institutions differed sharply from those of emerging land markets in early modern Western Europe: in particular, government played a lesser role in adjudicating disputes over land contracts, and customary arrangements included features that (a) gave some sellers of land claims on purchasers that could last for many years and (b) gave some tenants, especially in South and East China, very strong usufruct rights, which themselves became a form of tradable property. However, despite these and other differences from Western models, Chinese land markets were quite efficient, and provided the incentives needed for a very productive agriculture; secure tenants, for instance, responded to their strong position by behaving like owners and investing heavily in improving the land.

THE ROLE OF PARTICIPATORY SOCIAL FORESTRY IN THE ENHANCEMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE RURAL POOR: A CASE STUDY OF DHAKA FOREST DIVISION IN BANGLADESH

ABSTRACT The people of Bangladesh, a densely populated country, depend heavily on forests for fuel wood, timber and other subsistence. Due to huge biotic and abiotic pressure, forest resources of the country have been depleted greatly. Participatory social forestry was introduced in Bangladesh in early 1980s to reduce the rampant rate of deforestation. Few studies are available on social forestry in Bangladesh. This research was done in degraded Sal (Shorea robusta) forests under the Dhaka Forest Division. Due to its location in the central part of the country, this forest is subjected to tremendous illicit cutting and land encroachment. It was focused on the role of participatory social forestry in the enhancement of the socio—economic condition of the poor. All three types of plantation (viz. woodlots, agroforestry plantings and strip plantations) raised under social forestry were financially profitable. Net Present Values to the poor (NPV) were highest in the strip plantations (US$ 7,857) followed by woodlot plantations (US $ 4,350) and lowest in agroforestry plantings (US$ 4,222). On an average, each participant received, US$ 3,338, US$ 3,092 and US$ 1,786 from the, woodlot plantations, agroforestry plantings and strip plantations respectively. This additional forest based income was a significant contribution to improve socio-economic conditions of the poor. It is found that individuals recognized as encroachers in the past, have now become vital stakeholders of forests and recognized member in community. Negative findings of the programmes are that after 25 years of social forestry practice in Bangladesh, poor people still remain skeptical towards the programme due to various administrative blocks and shortcomings and a lack of policy instruments such as the granting of usufruct rights that affect the sustainability of the programme. Nevertheless compared with the failures of traditional forest management, participatory social forestry is a far better option. Keywords: social forestry, Sal forests, financial return.

Gendered access to customary land in East Timor

Land tenure rights reflect the deeper structures of society, particularly gender distinctions in relation to land. Considering the structural differences between patrilineal and matrilineal customary tenure systems in East Timor are understudied, this paper explores men and women’s experiences in accessing land under such arrangements. The comparative analysis of two patrilineal with one matrilineal land tenure systems in Ainaro and Manufahi districts suggests a significant degree of flexibility within both systems with respect to the norms of gendered inheritance. Therefore, the binary constructs of ‘patrilineal’ and ‘matrilineal’ societies are limiting. Both men and women in these communities may acquire land rights under different circumstances, mainly through negotiations with their parents or hamlet chief. Daughters in the patrilineal communities could inherit family land upon their parents’ death and sons in the matrilineal community could gain land by cultivating and maintaining unclaimed customary land. Empirical evidence show that inheritance principally determines usufruct rights to land, but marriage exchange practices complicates a deeper understanding of traditional East Timorese land rights.

Rural land ownership reform in China’s property law

With regard to rural land ownership, there exist many problems, such as absence of the subject of right, ambiguity of the definition of right quality, and imperfection of the taking system. To perfect the rural land ownership system in China, we should continuously take villagers’ groups and villages as the subject of collective ownership and affirm the right of the members of collective organizations. In order to promote the development of the rural economy and realize the value of land, the contractual management right should be deemed as a property right and allowed to be transferred. The transferability of collective land ownership should be gradually established and the process of taking should be further normalized. Meanwhile, the farmers must receive sufficient compensation. The house site usage right is a special form of right of usufruct. To follow the principle that property should be made best use of, the house site usage right should also be transferable.

Interaction of Biodiversity and Economic Welfare - A Case Study from the Himalayas of India

In any area to achieve the goal of biodiversity conservation, the existing resources must be strengthened, which are helpful to provide the alternate livelihood or income to the local people. However, although various programmes/policies are being set up over the world for conservation of biodiversity, a variety of factors are hurdles to achieve the expected goals. Particularly in developing countries the sustainable livelihood of the local perople is difficult if restrictions are imposed on their traditional usufruct rights over the natural resources. Based on the extensive field work and analysis of satellite imagery in the selected localities of the Indian Himalaya, we found that if the people are having the alternate avenue (profitable options) for earning, their dependencies on the existing resources (only to meet the subsistence needs, not for commercial purpose) will become much lower. Therefore, the biodiversity in these areas is conserved and managed in a healthy way. In this paper, the interactions of biodiversity and economic welfare of local people are discussed in view of understanding that the economic security is more important than pure enforcement of policies for biodiversity conservation.

Reckoning social forestry in Bangladesh: policy and plan versus implementation

The history of scientific forest management in Bangladesh dates back to the nineteenth century with defined forest policies and laws. Due to various socio-economic and socio-political factors, forest cover of the countryreduced drastically and all such policy initiatives proved ineffective. Although traditional forest management objectives covered a wide range from economic benefit to ecological stability, these have never been attained fully. Huge population and limited land area compelled policy makers to think about alternatives to traditional forest management. One alternative, social forestry, was introduced in Bangladesh in early 1980s and has proved to be extremely successful. While traditional forest management resulted in a net loss of forest resource cover, social forestry on the other hand, is playing a vital role in the expansion of forest cover (40387 ha of new forest cover and 48420 km new strip plantation since the mid-1980s) benefiting thousands of poor people. Results show that during the last four years (2000-2003) more than 23 000 individuals benefited from the final felling of different social forestry plantations (woodlot, agroforestry and strip plantation). This generated a total income of US$ 5.6 million for the government and US$ 5.3 million for participants plus US$ 1.2 million for the Tree Farming Fund - a 10 per cent depository reserve to sustain the practice in the long run. Although average individual final returns (US$ 223 person - 1 ) are not so attractive, some people got about US$ 5000 to US$ 8500 from final felling, sufficient to improve their standard of living and social position. Despite the success so far achieved, social forestry in Bangladesh still suffers from various institutional deficiencies like organization, skilled manpower, legitimate usufruct rights, peoples' participation from policy to implementation and clear budgetary arrangements. Besides, until now the role of relevant actors is not well defined in all the steps of social forestry practice in Bangladesh. Unless the participants are given clear legitimate usufruct rights, they will remain sceptical towards this programme. They should have good and meaningful access from planning to implementation. In the context of institutional development, there are governmental policy guidelines and a 20-year Master Plan for Bangladesh. Although some steps have been partially completed, there is still much to do to comply with forest policy guidelines and the Master Plan. It is shown that in the last seven years (1995/96-200½002) only US$ 15.41 million a - 1 has actually been spent against an allocated sum of US$ 68.37 million a - 1 . Therefore, if the intention is to institutionalize social forestry in Bangladesh, government and policy makers should actively come forward. Otherwise the full potential of social forestry in Bangladesh will not become a reality.

Evaluating capacity development for participatory forest management in Bangladesh's Sal forests based on ‘4Rs’ stakeholder analysis

Participatory forest management (PFM) in Bangladesh has become the dominant strategy in the country's forestry sector. The main goal of PFM is to enhance the capacity of both state and civil society stakeholders to manage forests in a sustainable manner. This study aims to evaluate capacity development for key stakeholders using ‘4Rs’ stakeholder analysis. The data for this study were collected through focus group discussions with local stakeholders, individual interviews with forest department (FD) staff and a sample survey of participating farmers. Information derived from focus group and individual interviews were analysed using conceptual content analysis and sample survey data were analysed using statistical analysis. Conceptual content analysis suggested the following: among stakeholders, the national government, concerned civil servants, concerned FD staff and the funding agency are the most important and influential stakeholders; although local FD staff and participating farmers are important and are the most experienced stakeholders, they cannot participate in the decision-making process and thus are less influential as stakeholders. The FD usually has ownership and revenue collection rights over a PFM project, while participating farmers have only usufruct rights over the forest resources and are responsible for protecting and managing the participatory managed forests, so that those stakeholders with many responsibilities and rights benefit less. Relationships between the project implementers and the local stakeholders are poor. Statistical analysis suggests that in respect to participating farmers: about 46% did not received any benefits from the forests; about 30% who received benefits were not satisfied with what they received; about 85% did not attend any decision-making process; about 19% did not agree with the strategy of PFM; and about 28% were unable to participate in PFM with their acquired capacity. Overall analyses suggest that the capacity of stakeholders for sustainable PFM did not develop to the level anticipated under the project proposal.

'The Finn line' - a historical curiosity or a juridicial rality? The Sami reindeer herders' land rights in southern Sami areas evaluated from land consolidation practice (In Norwegian with Summary in English)

Attitudes towards the land rights of Sami reindeer herders have changed considerably during the last 100 years. So, too, has consideration of how such rights should be treated by Land Consolidation Courts. This paper reviews changes in attitudes to the Sami land rights with respect to how these are considered in Land Con¬solidation Courts in southern Sami areas in Norway. The review also considers changing attitudes regarding the competence of Land Consolidation Courts to deal with such matters. There were several cases in the 20th Century in which Land Consolidation Courts treated Sami land rights in a restricted and unfortunate manner. Legal practice, however, was not always like that, evidenced by the so-called 'Finn line' (Norwegian: 'finnelinja' -'Finn' is an archaic name for Sami). This boundary was established during a land consolidation case in 1873 and was confirmed in 1883. At that time, Sami land rights were evidently accepted as appurtenant right in privately owned mountain pasture and the Sami were treated in the same way as others who enjoyed rights of usufruct on it. The regulation of 1883 included rules governing compensation for grazing damage on farming land. In particular, responsibility for grazing damage was divided between owners and the reindeer herders, providing these looked after their animals properly, 'The Finn line' subsequently achieved wider importance. The case of 1873¬1883 has been referred to several times as a valuable and valid precedent for a way in which to organize grazing conflicts in other Sami areas. It was used in 1964 as evidence of the special rights of Sami reindeer people in the Brekken common land case. The Sami won this case in 1968 and, in its judgement, the Norwegian Supreme Court of Justice emphasised the importance of the line (Rt. 1968, p. 394). Although, owing to changes in land use practices, the 'Finn line' no longer has any practical significance, its juridical significance remains because it settles the principle that the rights of Sami reindeer herders' have to be considered in the same way as the rights of farming land owners. The ruling of 1873-1883 makes it clear that reindeer herders stand to gain important concessions, with respect to access to pasture, in land consolidation cases. The degradation of Sami land rights from the end of the 19th Century was a consequence of political manipulation and had no basis in law. Attitudes have now changed and, consequently, there is a need to revise recent legislation, such as the 1978 Reindeer Husbandry Act with regard to rules for compensation for grazing damage on farming land, and the 1979 Land Consolidation Act concerning rules of land use.

User perceptions of conservation and participatory management of iGxalingenwa forest, South Africa

New forest policies in South Africa seek to reconcile conservation and development objectives by devolving some responsibility for forest management from the state to local communities. Community participation in forest management aims to protect forest-based subsistence livelihoods by incorporating the interests of resource users, while simultaneously diffusing threats to biodiversity by managing resource use. To date, participatory forest management (PFM) has had mixed success in South Africa because the transfer of rights to users has not accompanied changes in policy. A questionnaire survey of 60 households (43%) revealed the attitudes of users toward current management and conservation options for iGxalingenwa forest. Users chose participatory forest management (52%) over community (25%) or state-dominated forest management (2%) structures. User choice was motivated by the desire to secure rights of access to, and ensure equitable benefit from, a dwindling resource base, rather than the conservation of these resources to sustain future yields. Users were unwilling to reduce resource use and compromise usufruct rights to achieve conservation goals, even to improve the availability of the resource stock. Current user needs compromise biodiversity conservation goals, and users regard state conservation practices as protectionist and obstructing their rights of access to resources. While the National Forests Act of 1998 seeks to conserve resources by limiting access to them and is based on principles of sustainable use, it is nevertheless perceived to offer few incentives to users to participate in forest management and conservation. Ideally, an institutional and legal framework that allocates user rights and managerial responsibilities to households is required, but clearly suitable alternatives to forest products are also vital for successful management. Greater trust between the provincial parks authority and users is needed, but is complicated by weak traditional leadership and poor community representation. Ultimately, users preferred PFM because, while recognizing that harvest rates are unsustainable, user dependence upon forest resources and weak traditional leadership means they can protect usufruct rights only by participation. Changes to any of these factors may create demands for a new management system. PFM allows the greatest flexibility for responding to changes in demands as well as the environment.

Property as a Social Relation: Rights of "Kindness" and the Social Organization of Lobster Fishing among Northeastern Nova Scotian Scottish Gaels

This paper describes the informal system of property rights that characterizes the commercially valuable lobster fishery pursued in St. George’s Bay, northeastern Nova Scotia, by the descendents of Scottish Gaels. In this setting, discrete family-defined but individually “owned” lobster fishing berths coexist cheek by jowl with a “common ground” fishery. The principles governing the berth system derive, in part, from a land-based system of usufruct rights termed “kindnesses” in 18th century Scotland. The historical, familial, and community attributes of the berth system are outlined, as are the characteristics of the coexistent common ground fishery. Lobster harvesters with berth rights and many without argue that the berth system, in and of itself, is an effective conservation mechanism. This contention is described and discussed in relation to historical evidence respecting local lobster landings and recruitment characteristics. The paper concludes by arguing, first of all, that regulatory authorities should pay far more attention to the role played by informal property rights systems in accomplishing the goals of conservation and good management. While fisheries of this type are typically described in the literature as common property systems, we argue that they are, in fact, mixed property systems—a fact not adequately accounted for by existing regulatory policy or common property theory.

Das Kloster Einsiedeln als Waldbesitzer im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert | The forest ownership of the monastery of Einsiedeln in the 16th and 17th centuries

The monastery of Einsiedeln is not only the biggest private forest owner in the region but in the whole of Switzerland. Many of the forests it holds today already belonged to the monastery in the Middle Ages. In keeping with the notion of property rights at the time the monastery did not, however, hold all rights of usufruct. The monastery's forests were exploited by the «Waldleute» (the inhabitants of Einsiedeln), sometimes as common pasture, but sometimes individually. In the 16th and 17th centuries and against the will of Canton Schwyz (under whose protectorate it lay) the monastery redeemed the rights of usufruct to ensure its own supply of wood and in order to participate in wood trading with the town of Zurich. Various examples show that the monastery often only redeemed the rights of wood yield while the grazing rights stayed with the seller – clearly an arrangement that was in the economic interests of both parties. With the advent of the modern property rights and the introduction of a «regulated forest management» such an arrangement came to be seen as a big problem. This is why, in the 19th century, the monastery redeemed all rights of usufruct of its forests.