Rift Axis Research Articles

Constraining timescales of focused magmatic accretion and extension in the Afar crust using lava geochronology

As continental rift zones mature the tectonic and volcanic processes associated with crustal extension become confined to narrow magmatic rift zones, reminiscent of oceanic spreading ridges. The formation of these rift zones and the development of ocean-ridge type topography is a significant milestone in rift evolution as it signifies the localization of crustal extension and rift-related volcanism. Here we show that lavas, which erupted since ~200 ka along part of the on-land Red Sea rift system in Afar, Ethiopia, have a consistent age-progression from the rift axis outwards, indicating that axial dyke intrusion has been the primary mechanism of segment growth and that focused magmatic accretion and extension in the crust have remained stable here over this period. Our results suggest that as this rift segment has formed, in thinned and intruded continental crust, the time-averaged surface opening rate has closely approximated the total extension rate between Africa and Arabia.

The rotations opening the Central and Northern Atlantic Ocean: compilation, drift lines, and flow lines

We provide an up-to-date compilation of Euler rotations that model the evolution of the Central and Northern Atlantic Ocean (Table 1). The data basis forms seafloor spreading magnetic anomalies of the Atlantic. We checked the published rotations and selected those that form a consistent model. The increments of the Euler rotations going back in time from magnetic anomaly to magnetic anomaly can be illustrated by chains of points on “drift lines” that are paths of motions from continent to continent. Along these paths, the continents bordering the Atlantic Ocean can be moved back to their Mesozoic position within Pangea. Other figures exhibit the early rifting of the North Atlantic, the drift of Iberia, and the evolution of the Greenland-Ellesmere region. The points on the drift lines do not correspond directly to the lines of magnetic anomalies or their “picks” displayed today symmetrically in the Atlantic Ocean. To acquire correspondence, symmetric “flow lines” are constructed analogous to the spreading procedure. But points on the flow lines constructed by half of the increments partially also deviate from the expected symmetric position and in this way quantify displacements or jumps of the axis of rifting or spreading. Most of the selected rotations are from the excellent analyses of previous work. Essential deviations from published rotations are the M 0 rotations of Eurasia and of the Porcupine unit with respect to North America (EUR-NAM and POR-NAM). They lead to a better coincidence between the back-rotated M 0 magnetic anomalies in the Bay of Biscay on the one side and a change of the first transform motions between Greenland and Svalbard on the other side. Through this explanation, an overlap in Pangea SW of Svalbard is avoided and transform motions instead of strong extension are predicted. Some additional data are needed to complete the model: the earliest part of the path of Iberia to North America (IBA-NAM) up to M 4 is calculated assuming that Iberia moved parallel to the African plate, though with slower spreading rates. The evolution of the Central and North Atlantic Ocean system is described in short. This model of the Central and North Atlantic was produced with the primary intention of clearing and fixing the positions of Africa, Iberia, and Eurasia as a framework for an improved reconstruction of the Western Tethys evolution.

Interblock zones in the crust of the southern regions of East Siberia: tectonophysical interpretation of geological and geophysical data

Interblock zones in the crust of the southern regions of East Siberia: tectonophysical interpretation of geological and geophysical data

Evidence from mantle xenoliths for lithosphere removal beneath the central Rio Grande Rift

Seismic tomography beneath the Central Rio Grande Rift (RGR) at ∼34°N shows a low P and S wave velocity zone in the mantle that extends up the base of the Moho. This low-velocity region has been interpreted by (Gao et al., 2004) to be the result of convective removal of a portion of the once >100km thick Proterozoic lithosphere. The amount of extension in the central RGR is thought to be low (∼25%) and thus cannot account for the amount of lithosphere thinning suggested by seismic tomography. We measured whole rock and mineral major element, trace element, and isotopic compositions of spinel-peridotite xenoliths erupted along the central axis of the rift (Elephant Butte) and the eastern margin of the Colorado Plateau (Cerro Chato) to determine their depth of origin and mantle provenance and to test the delamination hypothesis. If lithosphere removal has not occurred and the low P and S wave velocities are instead the result of hydration or melt infiltration in the lithosphere, then xenoliths erupted on the rift axis should have geochemical compositions similar to Proterozoic sub-continental lithospheric mantle (SCLM). At Cerro Chato, on the margin of the Colorado Plateau, xenoliths were derived from ∼60km depth and have geochemical signatures similar to Proterozoic sub-continental lithospheric mantle (e.g. refractory major element compositions, LREE-enrichment, enriched Sr and Nd isotopes, unradiogenic Os isotopes). At Elephant Butte, along the central rift axis, two distinct groups of xenoliths are present. The majority of xenoliths from Elephant Butte are LREE-depleted and have fertile major element compositions. Additionally, these xenoliths have isotopic signatures similar to the range for DMM (e.g. 87Sr/86Sr ranging from 0.7018 to 0.7023, εNd ranging from 7 to 21, and 187Os/188Os ranging from 0.122 to 0.130). We interpret this group of xenoliths to be derived from asthenospheric mantle. A less-abundant group of xenoliths at Elephant Butte are LREE enriched, have refractory major element compositions, enriched Sr, Nd, and Pb isotopes, and unradiogenic Os isotopes. These are characteristic of Proterozoic SCLM. Both groups of xenoliths from Elephant Butte are derived from ∼45km depth. We interpret the suite of xenoliths at Elephant Butte to have sampled what was recently the base of the Proterozoic SCLM. We conclude that a portion of the mantle lithosphere has been removed which allowed modern convecting mantle (DMM) to be emplaced at the base of the pre-existing SCLM.

Seismicity from February 2006 to September 2007 at the Rwenzori Mountains, East African Rift: earthquake distribution, magnitudes and source mechanisms

Abstract. We have analysed the microseismic activity within the Rwenzori Mountains area in the western branch of the East African Rift. Seismogram recordings from a temporary array of up to 27 stations reveal approximately 800 events per month with local magnitudes ranging from –0.5 to 5.1. The earthquake distribution is highly heterogeneous. The majority of located events lie within faults zones to the east and west of the Rwenzoris with the highest seismic activity observed in the northeastern area, where the mountains are in contact with the rift shoulders. The hypocentral depth distribution exhibits a pronounced peak of seismic energy release at 15 km depth. The maximum extent of seismicity ranges from 20 to 32 km and correlates well with Moho depths that were derived from teleseismic receiver functions. We observe two general features: (i) beneath the rift shoulders, seismicity extends from the surface down to ca. 30 km depth; (ii) beneath the rift valley, seismicity is confined to depths greater than 10 km. From the observations there is no indication for a crustal root beneath the Rwenzori Mountains. The magnitude frequency distribution reveals a b-value of 1.1, which is consistent with the hypothesis that part of the seismicity is caused by magmatic processes within the crust. Fault plane solutions of 304 events were derived from P-polarities and SV/P amplitude ratios. More than 70 % of the source mechanisms exhibit pure or predominantly normal faulting. T-axis trends are highly uniform and oriented WNW–ESE, which is perpendicular to the rift axis and in good agreement with kinematic rift models. At the northernmost part of the region we observe a rotation of the T-axis trends to NEN–SWS, which may be indicative of a local perturbation of the regional stress field.

Effect of depleted continental lithosphere counterflow and inherited crustal weakness on rifting of the continental lithosphere: General results

Some non‐volcanic rifted continental margins differ from the predictions of uniform lithospheric extension in two significant ways, namely: 1) large tracts of continental mantle lithosphere are exposed at the seafloor or are inferred to have been emplaced beneath the outer regions of the margin; 2) rifting evolves from distributed extension with multiple rifts to terminal focused rifting. These characteristics are explained by depth‐dependent extension. We investigate this type of deformation using 2D upper‐mantle‐scale dynamical finite element models of rifting that include: 1) lithospheric counterflow, the gravitationally driven lateral flow of depleted lower lithosphere during rifting, as a mechanism for underplating and exhuming continental mantle, and; 2) inherited crustal weak zones that cause initially distributed syn‐rift extension. Depleted lower lithosphere (compositionally less dense than sublithospheric mantle by 50–80 kg m−3, with a moderately ‘dry’ olivine rheology) efficiently flows laterally thereby exhuming zones of continental mantle lithosphere that are respectively up to 90 and 140 km wide. Inherited crustal weak zones that are offset from the main central rift axis can be reactivated as offset rift basins. Extension in these basins depends on their proximity to the central rift and the ease with which crust decouples from mantle: narrow (<50 km) basins when crust does not decouple, and longer‐lived wider basins for moderate decoupling. For weak crust that readily decouples during depth‐dependent extension, the offset rift basins may remain active throughout rifting, giving rise to highly allochthonous crustal terranes that are translated toward and over the central rift axis.

Magmatic lithospheric heating and weakening during continental rifting: A simple scaling law, a 2‐D thermomechanical rifting model and the East African Rift System

Continental rifting is accompanied by lithospheric thinning and decompressional melting. After extraction, melt is intruded at shallower depth thereby heating and weakening the lithosphere. In a feedback mechanism this weakening may assist rifting and melt production. A one‐dimensional kinematic lithospheric thinning model is developed including decompressional melting and intrusional magma deposition. The intrusional heating effect is determined as a function of thinning rate and amount, melting parameters, potential temperature, and the depth range of emplacement. The temperature increases approximately proportionally to the square root of the thinning rate and to the square of the supersolidus potential temperature. Simple scaling laws are derived allowing predicting these effects and the surface heat flux for arbitrary scenarios. Two‐dimensional thermomechanical extension models are carried out for a multicomponent (crust‐mantle) two‐phase (melt‐matrix) system with a rheology based on laboratory data including magmatic weakening. In good agreement with the 1‐D kinematic models it is found that the lithosphere may heat up by several 100 K. This heating enhances viscous weakening by one order of magnitude or more. In a feedback mechanism rifting is dynamically enforced, leading to a significant increase of rift induced melt generation. Including the effect of lateral focusing of magma toward the rift axis the laws are applied to different segments of the East African Rift System. The amount of intrusional heating increases with maturity of the rift from O(10 K) to up to 200 K or 400 K at the Afar Rift depending on the depth range of the magmatic emplacement.

Fluid-triggered earthquake swarms in the Rwenzori region, East African Rift—Evidence for rift initiation

The Rwenzori Mountains are located within the Albertine Rift Valley in western Uganda. To monitor the microseismic activity in the area we have deployed a seismic network of up to 35 stations for a period of about 20months. The analysis of the recordings revealed several earthquake clusters within a restricted area NE of the mountain block. The clusters form elongated pipes with 1–2km diameter and vertical extensions of 3–5km. Most of them are located in 5–16km depths; however one cluster reaches down to 22km. Each cluster is composed of a series of single earthquake swarms with durations between a few days and more than a week, interrupted by intervals of inactivity of up to several months. Some of the swarm events exhibit vertical migration tendencies with estimated velocities between 0.3 and 1km/day. Local magnitudes range from ML=0.5 to ML=4.0 with b-values between 0.96 and 1.2. The source mechanisms of the swarm earthquakes are dominated by normal faulting with tension-axes orientations perpendicular to the rift axis. There are only few strike-slip events and no reverse mechanisms. From petrological considerations we presume that the earthquake swarms are triggered by fluids and gases which originate from a magmatic source below the crust. Melt and/or CO2 are guided along the intersection lines of two steep fault sets that were identified by shear-wave splitting analysis and fault mapping in the Rwenzori area. The existence of a magmatic source within the lithosphere is supported by the detection of a shear-wave velocity reduction in 55–80km depth from receiver-function analysis and the location of mantle earthquakes at about 60km. We interpret these observations as indication for an initial rifting process that may eventually lead to the complete detachment of the Rwenzori block from the surrounding rift flanks.

Hf-Nd isotope variation in Mariana Trough basalts: The importance of “ambient mantle” in the interpretation of subduction zone magmas

In the study of geochemical mass balances at subduction zones, the composition of the mantle wedge prior to additions from the slab is a critically important yet poorly constrained parameter. Deconvolving the influence of ancient versus modern enrichments is particularly difficult, especially when considering elements that are highly mobile. Here we provide an alternative approach, using less mobile elements, and a filter to remove the effects of recent slab additions. We provide new Hf isotope data for 30 Mariana Trough (MT) backarc basin lavas. Once filtered, Hf and Nd isotope ratios are highly correlated, of Indian mid-oceanic ridge basalt character, and display variations similar to ocean ridges of comparable lengths. The isotopic variability observed in this “ambient mantle” provides a new paradigm for the interpretation of the varied volcanic products of the arc. Thus, shoshonites associated with the northern termination of the backarc basin rift axis reflect the interaction of a subducted sediment melt with an isotopically enriched mantle source. In contrast, the large volcanoes of the Central Island province have a consistent offset in Nd isotope compositions from the MT array resulting from fluid addition. Existing data for smaller edifices in the submarine portion of the arc have larger variations resulting from fluid addition on a more local scale. We suggest that the similar characterization of ambient mantle elsewhere may help to resolve many conflicting geochemical observations in arc lavas worldwide.

Geochronological dating and stratigraphic sequences of Harrat Lunayyir, NW Saudi Arabia

Harrat Lunayyir is a basaltic volcanic field in NW Saudi Arabia. Lava flows are basaltic to basanitic in composition, and the Holocene flows are alkali olivine basalts. The volcanic field contains about 50 cones that were constructed on Precambrian crystalline rocks along an N-S axis. The dominantly basaltic lavas of Harrat Lunayyir have been divided based on their erosion characteristics into two major units – an older Tertiary unit (Jarad basalt) and a younger Quaternary unit (Maqrah basalt). The Quaternary Maqrah basalt has been subdivided into five stratigraphic subunits, Qm1 and Qm2 forming the Lower Maqrah basalt and Qm3, Qm4, and Qm5 forms the Upper Maqrah basalt. In 2009, a 3-km-long rupture in Harrat Lunayyir and lengthened to 8 km. Satellite radar images suggested that the most likely cause of this fault was magma intruding vertically along a 10-km-long fracture. The regional stress field deduced from the orientation of the observed dike indicates NE - SW tension, which is also indicated by focal mechanism solutions with normal faulting with two major structural trends of NE-SW and NW-SE. These trends are consistent with the orientation of the opening of the Red Sea and with regional tectonics of Arabian-African rifting. Moreover, these results show that the Red Sea ridge stress field extends at least 200 km from the rift axis into the Arabian plate. Prior to this study, estimates of the ages of the samples ranged from Tertiary to Quaternary. This work places the ages of all samples firmly in the Quaternary period. 40Ar/39Ar age determinations have been produced for six samples. Most of these are fine-grained enough that whole-rock fragments were chosen for irradiation. The precision of the ages calculated in this study are limited by the small amounts of radiogenic argon compared to the larger amounts of non-radiogenic, or background argon typical in basaltic whole rocks of this age. The discrepancies in ages and stratigraphic position are due to the small amounts in accumulated argon over the relatively very short period of time. In general, this study shows that volcanic activity at Harrat Lunayyir started about 500,000 years ago. There must have been a substantial time between the lowest unit (which has previously been assigned a tertiary age) and youngest so that an unconformity has been developed. The latest activity could have taken place at about 5000 years ago. Key words: Geochronological dating, Harrat Lunayyir, age determinations, Maqrah basalt, Saudi Arabia.

Teleseismic earthquake swarms at ultraslow spreading ridges: indicator for dyke intrusions?

Earthquakes at mid-ocean ridges reflect the active magmatic and tectonic processes that form new oceanic crust. Studies of large earthquakes observed on land and smaller earthquakes observed locally or regionally by ocean bottom seismometers or autonomous underwater hydrophones have greatly contributed to our understanding of the structure and active spreading processes at the mid-ocean ridges of the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean opening with velocities in excess of 25 mm yr–1. At spreading rates below 20 mm yr–1 full rate, the appearance and the accretion processes of mid-ocean ridges undergo fundamental changes as the melt supply is drastically reduced. The active spreading processes at these so-called ultraslow spreading ridges are still poorly known, as the main representatives, the Arctic Ridge System and the Southwest Indian Ridge, are poorly accessible and neither autonomous underwater hydrophone nor ocean bottom seismometer records of local seismicity are available. In an attempt to compare on a large scale the accretion style of ultraslow spreading ridge sections, I analyse the teleseismically recorded seismicity in 11 sections of the Arctic Ridge System and the Southwest Indian Ridge spanning altogether 7200 km. Epicentres located within 30–35 km of the rift axis were extracted from the catalogue of the International Seismological Centre for a time period of 35 yr. On the basis of a single-link cluster analysis, I identified 27 swarms with eight or more events. These swarms occur almost exclusively at centres of focussed magmatism suggesting that the swarms are probably initiated by magmatism. Normal faults along several tens of kilometres surrounding the volcanic centres react in large earthquakes (M > 5) to dyke emplacement. The routine generation of large earthquakes in the cold, brittle lithosphere of ultraslow spreading ridges makes the teleseismic record a valuable means to study ultraslow accretion processes and to provide a global framework for the interpretation of the limited local and regional seismicity studies.

Characteristics of tectonomagmatic earthquake swarms at the Southwest Indian Ridge between 16°E and 25°E

The ultraslow spreading Southwest Indian Ridge (SWIR) is a prominent end member of the global mid-ocean ridge system. It spreads with a full-rate of 14 mm/y to 16 mm/y and shows several segments of various obliquities. The western SWIR consists of the Oblique and Orthogonal Supersegments lying at an epicentral distance of ~21° to the VNA2 seismic array operated by the German Neumayer station in East Antarctica. The array monitors backazimuth, apparent velocity and signal-to-noise ratio of arriving waves and provides a dataset of seismicity from the western SWIR over several years. Compared to the global seismological network, its detection threshold for earthquakes occurring at the western SWIR is more than 0.5 mb lower enabling a more comprehensive study of mid-ocean ridge processes than the teleseismic earthquake catalogues. We identified a total number of 743 earthquakes occurring at the western part of the SWIR and calculated the body-wave magnitudes (mb) from P-wave amplitude picks on the VNA2 broadband sensor obtaining a magnitude range from mb 3.18 to mb 5.34. In the years of 2001, 2004, 2005 and 2008, significantly increased event rates indicated four earthquake swarms with up to 164 events lasting for several days. All swarms had strong events registered in the International Seismological Centre (ISC) catalogue. The relocalization of these events confirmed that all swarms occurred in the same region on the Orthogonal Supersegment. We analysed event and moment release rate histories, b-values and aftershock decay rates (Modified Omori Law) finding that the swarms of 2001, 2004 and 2005 have similarities in the temporal distribution of seismic moment and event numbers. The swarm of 2008 is smaller with high magnitude events at the swarm’s onset which represent shear failure on normal faults. The application of the Modified Omori Law and the b-value show that the earthquakes of the swarms do not follow the classical mainshock-aftershock pattern of purely tectonic earthquake sequences. At the Orthogonal Supersegment a continuous positive magnetic anomaly along the rift axis, a negative Mantle Bouguer Anomaly, basalts at the seafloor and potentially volcanic edifices indicate robust magmatic crustal accretion. The high-resolution bathymetry shows ubiquitous rift-parallel ridges with steep flanks toward the rift axis indicating high angle normal faults. The high magnitude earthquakes detected teleseismically during the swarms are generated there. We interpret that the swarms are caused by magmatic accretion episodes at a suggested volcanic centre of the Orthogonal Supersegment and that possible magma injection activates the steeply dipping fault planes.

Analogue Modelling of Inverted Oblique Rift Systems

The geometric evolution of brittle fault systems in inverted oblique and offset rift systems has been simulated using scaled sandbox analogue models. Dry fine-grained quartz sand was used to represent the brittle upper crust. Extensional faults geometries in the models were governed by the geometry and orientation of a stretching zone at the base of the models. Oblique rift models were characterized by segmented en-echelon border fault systems trending parallel to the rift axis and the underlying zone of basement stretching. Offset rift models promoted highly-segmented border faults as well as offset sub-basins within the rift. In both types of models, intra-rift fault arrays were oriented sub-perpendicular to the extension direction. Inversion of the oblique and offset extensional models was achieved by horizontal shortening. This resulted in partial inversion of the border and intra-rift faults as well as the formation of new reverse faults. The geometries, distribution, orientations and number of these new reverse faults were strongly controlled by the earlier-formed fault extensional architectures. At the margins of the rift zone, shortening was mainly accommodated by partial inversion of the border faults together with the formation of hanging-wall bypass faults and footwall shortcut thrusts. Inversion of the offset rift models produced reactivation of the extensional accommodation zones as soft-linked transfer zones between new thrust faults. The analogue model results have been compared with natural inversion structures in the Atlas Mountains of Morocco and the Ukrainian Donbas fold belt. The analogue modelling results suggest that the High Atlas formed as the result of oblique inversion of an oblique rift system, and the contractional structures in the Ukranian Donbas belt were generated by partial inversion of the earlier-formed Donbas extensional graben via two major newly developed short-cuts that uplifted and exhumed the basin.

Greenland Fracture Zone–East Greenland Ridge(s) revisited: Indications of a C22‐change in plate motion?

Changes in the lithospheric stress field, causing axial rift migration and reorientation of the transform, are generally proposed as an explanation for anomalously old crust and/or major aseismic valleys in oceanic ridge‐transform‐ridge settings. Similarly, transform migration of the Greenland Fracture Zone and separation of the 200‐km‐long, fracture‐zone‐parallel continental East Greenland Ridge from the Eurasia plate is thought to be related to a major change in relative plate motions between Greenland and Eurasia during the earliest Oligocene (Chron 13 time). This study presents a reinterpretation of the Greenland Fracture Zone – East Greenland Ridge based on new and existing geophysical data. Evidence is shown for two overstepping ridge segments (Segments A and B) of which Segment A corresponds to the already known East Greenland Ridge while Segment B was not detected previously. Interpretation of sonobuoy data and revised modeling of existing OBS data across Segment B indicate a continental composition of the segment. This interpretation is supported by magnetic anomaly data. The Segments A and B are bounded by portions of the Greenland Fracture Zone with a distinct ∼10° difference in strike. This is suggested to relate to an early episode of transform migration and reorientation of the lithospheric stress field around Chron 22 time, i.e., shortly after the Eocene breakup in the northern NE Atlantic. These findings contradict with previous interpretations of the fracture zone, which infer simple pre‐C13 strike‐slip kinematics.

The nature of the crust beneath the Afar triple junction: Evidence from receiver functions

The Afar depression is an ideal locale to study the role of extension and magmatism as rifting progresses to seafloor spreading. Here we present receiver function results from new and legacy experiments. Crustal thickness ranges from ∼45 km beneath the highlands to ∼16 km beneath an incipient oceanic spreading center in northern Afar. The crust beneath Afar has a thickness of 20–26 km outside the currently active rift segments and thins northward. It is bounded by thick crust beneath the highlands of the western plateau (∼40 km) and southeastern plateau (∼35 km). The western plateau shows VP/VS ranging between 1.7–1.9, suggesting a mafic altered crust, likely associated with Cenozoic flood basalts, or current magmatism. The southeastern plateau shows VP/VS more typical of silicic continental crust (∼1.78). For crustal thicknesses 2.0) can only be explained by significant amounts of magmatic intrusions in the lower crust. This suggests that melt emplacement plays an important role in late stage rifting, and melt in the lower crust likely feeds magmatic activity. The crust between the location of the Miocene Red Sea rift axis and the current rift axis is thinner ( 2.0) than beneath the eastern part of Afar (>26 km, VP/VS < 1.9). This suggests that the eastern region contains less partial melt, has undergone less stretching/extension and has preserved a more continental crustal signature than west of the current rift axis. The Red Sea rift axis appears to have migrated eastward through time to accommodate the migration of the Afar triple junction.

Radiating rifts and dyke swarms of the middle Paleozoic Yakutsk plume of eastern Siberian craton

The eastern part of the Siberian craton is locus to a mid-Paleozoic large igneous province (LIP) distributed over an area of >0.7 × 10 6 km. This Yakutsk LIP originated from a mantle plume that caused early domal uplift, formation of ‘triple junction’ rifts (with uplift of their shoulders), associated mafic magmatism including volcanics, sills and a giant radiating dyke swarm, and associated diamondiferous kimberlites (Mirnyi, Nakyn and Dladyn-Alakit fields). The mafic magmas are dominantly tholeiites with patterns that are overall similar to ocean island basalts (OIB), and isotope geochemistry suggests a mixture of enriched and depleted sources. Geochemistry is consistent with plume-lithospheric interactions. The main axis of failed rifting along the E–W trending Vilyui rift represents reactivation of the Akitkan belt along which at 1.9 Ga was the proposed locus of collision between northern (Anabar) and southern (Aldan) superterranes, and subsequent aulacogen rifting in the Mesoproterozoic.

Zircon from historic eruptions in Iceland: reconstructing storage and evolution of silicic magmas

Zoning patterns, U-Th disequilibria ages, and elemental compositions of zircon from eruptions of Askja (1875 AD), Hekla (1158 AD), Oraefajokull (1362 AD) and Torfajokull (1477 AD, 871 AD, 3100 BP, 7500 BP) provide insights into the complex, extended, histories of silicic magmatic systems in Iceland. Zircon compositions, which are correlated with proximity to the main axial rift, are distinct from those of mid-ocean ridge environments and fall at the low-Hf edge of the range of continental zircon. Morphology, zoning patterns, compositions, and U-Th ages all indicate growth and storage in subvolcanic silicic mushes or recently solidified rock at temperatures above the solidus but lower than that of the erupting magma. The eruptive products were likely ascending magmas that entrained a zircon “cargo” that formed thousands to tens of thousands of years prior to the eruptions.

Comparison of dike intrusions in an incipient seafloor-spreading segment in Afar, Ethiopia: Seismicity perspectives

[1] Oceanic crust is accreted through the emplacement of dikes at spreading ridges, but the role of dike intrusion in plate boundary deformation during continental rupture remains poorly understood. Between 2005 and 2009 the ∼70 km long Dabbahu-Manda Hararo rift segment in Ethiopia has experienced 14 large volume dike intrusions, 9 of which were recorded on temporary seismic arrays. A detailed comparison of the seismic characteristics of the seismically monitored dikes is presented with implications for dike intrusion processes and magmatic plumbing systems. All of the migrating swarms of earthquakes started from a <5 km radius zone at the middle of the Dabbahu-Manda Hararo segment, and traveled northward and southward along the rift axis. Small magnitude earthquakes associated with the margins of the propagating dike tips are followed by the largest magnitude, primarily low-frequency earthquakes. The seismic moment distributions show >80% of energy is released during the propagation phase, with minimal seismic energy release after the dike propagation ceases. We interpret that faulting and graben formation above the dikes occurs hours after the passage of the dike tip, coincident with the onset of low-frequency earthquakes. Dike lengths show no systematic reduction in length with time, suggesting that topographic loading and stress barriers influence dike length, as well as changes in tectonic stress. The propagation velocities of all the dikes follow a decaying exponential. Northward propagating dikes had faster average velocities than those that propagated southward, suggesting preconditioning by the 2005 megadike, or ongoing heating from a subcrustal magma source north of the midsegment.

Mapping the evolving strain field during continental breakup from crustal anisotropy in the Afar Depression

Rifting of the continents leading to plate rupture occurs by a combination of mechanical deformation and magma intrusion, yet the spatial and temporal scales over which these alternate mechanisms localize extensional strain remain controversial. Here we quantify anisotropy of the upper crust across the volcanically active Afar Triple Junction using shear-wave splitting from local earthquakes to evaluate the distribution and orientation of strain in a region of continental breakup. The pattern of S-wave splitting in Afar is best explained by anisotropy from deformation-related structures, with the dramatic change in splitting parameters into the rift axis from the increased density of dyke-induced faulting combined with a contribution from oriented melt pockets near volcanic centres. The lack of rift-perpendicular anisotropy in the lithosphere, and corroborating geoscientific evidence of extension dominated by dyking, provide strong evidence that magma intrusion achieves the majority of plate opening in this zone of incipient plate rupture.

Electrical mantle anisotropy and crustal conductor: a 3-D conductivity model of the Rwenzori Region in western Uganda

SUMMARY Magnetotelluric measurements were performed east of the Rwenzori Mountains, Uganda. At 23 sites transfer functions between magnetic and telluric fields and phase tensor elements were estimated in the period range 10–10 000 s. The transfer functions indicate a complex 3-D conductivity structure within the crust predominantly at the contact zone of the Rwenzori Mountains and the rift shoulder to the northeast. An alternative representation of the phase tensor ellipses in form of bars is introduced. For periods above 100 s, the major phase tensor bars of all sites strike SSW–NNE and the phase tensor invariants φmin and φmax exhibit a difference of a least 20°. This conspicuous behaviour and the small vertical magnetic field in the same period range can be explained by an anisotropic conductivity in the depth range 30–50 km with the conductive direction perpendicular to the Rift axis. The anisotropy might originate from orientated Olivine crystals in the most upper mantle, whereby the preferred orientation might be motion induced due to delamination of the lower crust beneath the Rwenzoris. A high conducting layer is found to the southeast of the Rwenzoris at 15-km depth matching a seismic low-velocity zone. Possibly it indicates a zone of partial melt within the lower crust connected to volcanic fields nearby. Generally, the phase tensor elements φmin increase above 45° for periods longer than 2000 s denoting an increase of conductivity towards greater depth.