Rich Source Of Α-linolenic Acid Research Articles

Evaluating the impact of organic chromium on hepatic phospholipid fatty acid molecular species, transcription of genes associated with lipid metabolism and oxidative status in broiler chickens fed flaxseed

Flaxseed is a rich source of α-linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3 n-3) and can be used to enrich chicken tissues with n-3 fatty acids (FA). However, antinutritional factors in flaxseed compromise the live performance of birds coupled with increased oxidative stress. Chromium (Cr) is a trace element with antioxidant properties. It is hypothesized that Cr supplementation will affect the hepatic total lipid profile, phospholipid n-3 and n-6 FA molecular species, lipid oxidation products, and transcription of genes associated with lipid metabolism in broiler chickens fed flaxseed. Ninety (n=90), day-old Cornish cross chicks were fed a corn-soybean meal-based diet containing 0% flaxseed (CTR), 10% flaxseed (FLAX), and FLAX+0.05% organic Cr (FLAXCr) for 42 d. The chicks were kept in 18 pens with 5 chicks per pen. For all response variables, the effect of dietary treatments were compared separately using SAS 9.4. P values were considered significant at ≤0.05. Total lipids, saturated FA, long-chain (≥20C) n-6 FA were reduced while total n-3 FA and long-chain n-3 FA were higher in the liver of FLAX and FLAXCr than CTR (P < 0.05). Hepatic phosphatidylcholine (PC) and phosphatidylethnolamine (PE) n-3 species (36:5, 38:6) were higher in FLAX and FLAXCr compared to CTR (P < 0.05). On the contrary, n-6 species in PC (36:4, 38:4) and PE (38:4) were lower in FLAX and FLAXCr compared to CTR (P < 0.05). Addition of Cr to a flaxseed-containing diet led to an increase in PE 36:4 (P < 0.05). A decrease in the transcription of ELOVL6 gene involved in de novo lipid synthesis was observed in FLAXCr (P=0.01). An increase in the transcription of genes involved in FA oxidation (ACAA2, ACOX1) was observed in FLAX compared to FLAXCr (P=0. 05; P=0.02). A trend for a decrease in the transcription of FADS2 and HMGCS1 was observed in FLAXCr than CTR and FLAX (P=0.06; 0.08). Transcription of other genes involved in de novo lipid synthesis (FASN, PPARA), FA oxidation (CPT1A, CPT2, ACAA1), and oxidative stress response (GPX1, NQO11, GSTA2, SLC40A1, NFE2L2) were not affected by the diets (P > 0.05). Lipid peroxidation products measured as thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) in liver was reduced in FLAXCr than CTR (P < 0.05) and was not different from FLAX (P > 0.05). Serum cholesterol and aspartic aminotransferase were reduced in FLAX and FLAXCr compared to CTR (P < 0.05). The serum glucose level was decreased in FLAX compared to CTR (P < 0.05) and a trend in decrease was noticed in FLAXCr vs. CTR (P=0.10). Serum TBARS were higher in CTR and FLAXCr compared to FLAX (P < 0.05). In conclusion, flaxseed supplementation enhances total and long-chain n-3 FA while reducing total lipids, saturated, and n-6 FA in the liver. Supplementing Cr along with flaxseed increased n-6 FA species in the hepatic PE and decreased the transcription of genes involved in FA oxidation and lipid synthesis.

Walnut Oil Reduces Aβ Levels and Increases Neurite Length in a Cellular Model of Early Alzheimer Disease.

(1) Background: Mitochondria are the cells’ main source of energy. Mitochondrial dysfunction represents a key hallmark of aging and is linked to the development of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Maintaining mitochondrial function might contribute to healthy aging and the prevention of AD. The Mediterranean diet, including walnuts, seems to prevent age-related neurodegeneration. Walnuts are a rich source of α-linolenic acid (ALA), an essential n3-fatty acid and the precursor for n3-long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (n3-PUFA), which might potentially improve mitochondrial function. (2) Methods: We tested whether a lipophilic walnut extract (WE) affects mitochondrial function and other parameters in human SH-SY5Y cells transfected with the neuronal amyloid precursor protein (APP695). Walnut lipids were extracted using a Soxhlet Extraction System and analyzed using GC/MS and HPLC/FD. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) concentrations were quantified under basal conditions in cell culture, as well as after rotenone-induced stress. Neurite outgrowth was investigated, as well as membrane integrity, cellular reactive oxygen species, cellular peroxidase activity, and citrate synthase activity. Beta-amyloid (Aβ) was quantified using homogenous time-resolved fluorescence. (3) Results: The main constituents of WE are linoleic acid, oleic acid, α-linolenic acid, and γ- and δ-tocopherol. Basal ATP levels following rotenone treatment, as well as citrate synthase activity, were increased after WE treatment. WE significantly increased cellular reactive oxygen species but lowered peroxidase activity. Membrane integrity was not affected. Furthermore, WE treatment reduced Aβ1–40 and stimulated neurite growth. (4) Conclusions: WE might increase ATP production after induction of mitochondrial biogenesis. Decreased Aβ1–40 formation and enhanced ATP levels might enhance neurite growth, making WE a potential agent to enhance neuronal function and to prevent the development of AD. In this sense, WE could be a promising agent for the prevention of AD.

Effect of phospholipid/flaxseed oil ratio on characteristics, structure change, and storage stability of liposomes

The flaxseed oil, a rich source of α-linolenic acid, was loaded in liposomes. The vesicle characteristics, encapsulation efficiency, and loading content with different amounts of flaxseed oil addition were investigated. At the ratio of phospholipid to flaxseed oil 5:1, the liposomes displayed an almost spherical shape and a homogeneous size distribution (observed by transmission electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy), with an average particle size 156 nm and an encapsulation efficiency of approximately 85%. The addition of flaxseed oil could change the phospholipid arrangement by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and Raman spectra. The hydrophobicity of membrane surface and the micropolarity of the bilayer interior decreased with the incorporation of flaxseed oil by fluorescence probe analysis. Liposomes showed higher oxidative stability and retention rate during the storage at the ratio of 5:1. In addition, the encapsulation of flaxseed oil in liposomes showed the ability of slower release. It comprehensively illustrated the flaxseed oil could affect the membrane structure of liposomes and provided useful information regarding the preparation of liposomes for hydrophobic compounds.

Antimicrobial Properties, Cytotoxic Effects, and Fatty Acids Composition of Vegetable Oils from Purslane, Linseed, Luffa, and Pumpkin Seeds

In the present study, the antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities, as well as the fatty acids composition in vegetable seed oils from linseed, purslane, luffa, and pumpkin were evaluated. For this purpose, two linseed oils and one luffa oil were commercially obtained, while purslane and pumpkin oils were obtained from own cultivated seeds. The results showed a variable fatty acids composition among the tested oils, with α-linolenic, linoleic, oleic, palmitic, and stearic acid being the most abundant compounds. In regards to particular oils, linseed oils were a rich source of α-linolenic acid, luffa and pumpkin oil were abundant in linoleic acid, while purslane oil presented a balanced composition with an almost similar amount of both fatty acids. Luffa oil was the most effective against two of the tested cancer cell lines, namely HeLa (cervical carcinoma) and NCI-H460 (non-small cell lung cancer), while it also showed moderate toxicity against non-tumor cells (PLP2 cell line). Regarding the antibacterial activity, linseed oil 3 and pumpkin oil showed the highest activity against most of the tested bacteria (especially against Enterobacter cloacae and Escherichia coli) with MIC and MBC values similar to the used positive controls (E211 and E224). All the tested oils showed significant antifungal activities, especially luffa and pumpkin oil, and for most of the tested fungi they were more effective than the positive controls, as for example in the case of Aspergillus versicolor, A. niger, and Penicillium verrucosum var. cyclopium. In conclusion, the results of our study showed promising antimicrobial and cytotoxic properties for the studied seed oils which could be partly attributed to their fatty acids composition, especially the long-chain ones with 12–18 carbons.

Perilla Seed Oil Enhances Cognitive Function and Mental Health in Healthy Elderly Japanese Individuals by Enhancing the Biological Antioxidant Potential.

Oxidative stress plays an important role in age-associated cognitive decline. We recently reported that dietary intake of perilla seed oil (PO), a rich source of α-linolenic acid (LNA, C18:3, ω-3), helps in maintaining good mental health in adults. This study aimed to investigate the impacts of dietary PO intake on cognitive functions and mental health in healthy, elderly Japanese individuals. Seventy-five healthy volunteers aged 64–84 years were randomly divided into two groups: a control group and a PO-administered group. At baseline and at 12 months of intervention, cognitive function, mental health condition, fatty acid profile of the red blood cell plasma membranes (RBC-PM), and serum biochemical parameters were evaluated. Results showed that serum biological antioxidant potential and LNA levels in the RBC-PM at 12 months after the trial were significantly higher in the PO group compared to the control group. Further, both the cognitive function measures, as evaluated by the Frontal Assessment Battery test and the apathy scores, tended to be improved after 12 months in the PO group. Our results demonstrate that dietary PO intake enhances the antioxidant potential and prevents the age-related cognitive and mental decline in healthy elderly individuals by enhancing the blood LNA levels.

Flaxseed oil in the context of a weight loss programme ameliorates fatty liver grade in patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: a randomised double-blind controlled trial.

Long-chain n-3 fatty acids have been shown to regulate lipid metabolism and reduce fat accumulation in the liver. This trial investigated the effect of flaxseed oil, as a rich source of α-linolenic acid, on fatty liver and cardiometabolic risk factors in patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). The randomised, double-blind, controlled trial was performed on sixty-eight NAFLD patients who were divided into flaxseed (n 34) and sunflower (n 34) oil groups. Patients were given a hypoenergetic diet (-2092 kJ/d) and 20 g/d of the corresponding oil for 12 weeks. Fatty liver grade, liver enzymes and cardiometabolic parameters were determined. The intention-to-treat approach was used for data analysis. Fatty liver grade significantly decreased in both groups (-0·68 in flaxseed v. -0·29 in sunflower, P = 0·002). Alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase decreased in both groups (P < 0·01). Also, significant reduction was observed in blood glucose (P = 0·005) and fat mass (P = 0·01) in the flaxseed and muscle mass (P = 0·01) in the sunflower group. However, none of these alterations was significantly different between the groups. Weight, waist circumference and blood pressure were significantly decreased in both groups but only weight change was significantly different between the groups (P = 0·01). IL-6 did not significantly change in either group but showed a significant between-group difference (P = 0·03). Overall, the results showed that in the context of a low-energy diet and moderate physical activity, flaxseed oil may benefit NAFLD patients to improve fatty liver grade, weight and IL-6 compared with sunflower oil.

Egg quality, fatty-acid composition and gastrointestinal morphology of layer hens fed whole flaxseed with enzyme supplementation

ABSTRACT1. Flaxseed is a rich source of α-linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3 n–3). Feeding flaxseed to hens can increase n–3 fatty acids (FA) in eggs. However, non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) in flaxseed decrease nutrient digestibility and can have a negative impact on egg n–3 FA incorporation. Addition of carbohydrase enzymes to flaxseed-based diets can decrease the anti-nutritive effects of NSP.2. An experiment was conducted to investigate the effect of enzyme supplementation on FA composition and gastrointestinal morphology in hens fed flaxseed. A total of seventy-two, 51-week old brown layer hens were randomly assigned to one of the four dietary treatments (six replicates with three hens per replicate): corn-soybean based diet containing 0% flax (Control), 10% flax (Flax), Flax+0.05% enzyme (Flax+E1), or Flax+0.1% enzyme (Flax+E2) in a 120-day feeding trial.3. Egg weight was highest in hens fed Flax+E1 (P < 0.05). Yolk weight was higher in Flax+E1 compared with the control and Flax+E2 and was not different from Flax treatment. ALA and total n–3 FA was highest in eggs from Flax+E2 hens (P < 0.05). Addition of enzyme has no effect of on docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), total long chain (>20-C FA), or n–6:n–3 FA ratio in eggs from hens fed flaxseed-based diets (P > 0.05). Over nine-fold increase in hepatic ALA was observed in the liver of hens fed flaxseed-based diets when compared with the control diet (P < 0.0001). No effect of enzyme supplementation was observed on liver ALA, DHA or long chain n–3 FA (P > 0.05). Enzyme supplementation reduced arachidonic acid, total n–6 and LC n–6 FA in liver tissue from hens fed flaxseed-based diets (P > 0.05).4. Villi height and width was higher in the duodenum and jejunum of hens fed flax-based diets compared to the control (P < 0.05). Enzyme supplementation led to an increase in villi width in jejunum (P < 0.05) in hens fed Flax+E2 (P < 0.05). No effect of diet was observed in the crypt depth and villi height:crypt depth ratio in the jejunum (P > 0.05).5. It was concluded that enzyme supplementation enhanced total n–3 FA deposition in eggs and liver and influence gastrointestinal morphology in layer hens fed flaxseed.

Flaxseed Oil Attenuates Intestinal Damage and Inflammation by Regulating Necroptosis and TLR4/NOD Signaling Pathways Following Lipopolysaccharide Challenge in a Piglet Model.

Flaxseed oil is a rich source of α-linolenic acid (ALA), which is the precursor of the long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), including docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). This study investigates the protective effect of flaxseed oil against intestinal injury induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Twenty-four weaned pigs were used in a 2 × 2 factorial experiment with dietary treatment (5% corn oil vs 5% flaxseed oil) and LPS challenge (saline vs LPS). On day 21 of the experiment, pigs were administrated with LPS or saline. At 2 h and 4 h post-administration, blood samples were collected. After the blood harvest at 4 h, all piglets were slaughtered and intestinal samples were collected. Flaxseed oil supplementation led to the enrichment of ALA, EPA, and total n-3 PUFAs in intestine. Flaxseed oil improved intestinal morphology, jejunal lactase activity, and claudin-1 protein expression. Flaxseed oil downregulated the mRNA expression of intestinal necroptotic signals. Flaxseed oil also downregulated the mRNA expression of intestinal toll-like receptors 4 (TLR4) and its downstream signals myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88), nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), and nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain proteins 1, 2 (NOD1, NOD2) and its adapter molecule, receptor-interacting protein kinase 2 (RIPK2). These results suggest that dietary addition of flaxseed oil enhances intestinal integrity and barrier function, which is involved in modulating necroptosis and TLR4/NOD signaling pathways.

Genetic resources of flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) as very rich source of α-linolenic acid

SummaryIntroduction: Polish oilseed and flaxseed collection is a source of genotypes containing very high amounts of α-linolenic acid. Objective: The objective of the study is to test the seeds for the fat content and fatty acids composition in the oil pressed from the 9 tested accessions of flax (Linum usitatissimum L.). Our goal is to promote the Polish flax collection, which seeds are unique as one of the richest sources of α-linolenic acid. Methods: Assays to determine the content of fat and fatty acids composition in linseed oil were performed at the IHAR-PIB Biochemical Laboratory in Poznań. The fat content was determined by infrared analysis (calibration performed on the basis of seed sample at IHAR-PIB in Poznań) by means of a NIRS 6500 spectrophotometer with a reflection detector within the range of 400-2500 nm. The composition of fatty acids was determined by means of a method proposed by Byczyńska and Krzymański (1969), based on gas chromatography of methyl esters of fatty acids contained in linseed oil. The following varieties of flax were investigated: Tabare (INF00111), Szegedi 30 (INF00427), Olin (INF 00444), Redwood 65 (INF00523), Dufferin (INF00540), AC Mc Duff (INF00648), Alfonso Inta (INF00683), Olinette (INF00687), Royale (INF00689). Results: The content of α-linolenic acid (ALA, C18:3) in evaluated genotypes of flax ranged from 48.9 (Royale) to 59.9% (Alfonso Inta). Content of linoleic acid (LA, C18:2) in evaluated genotypes of flax ranged from 12.4 (Tabare) to 17.1% (AC Mc Duff). The content of oleic acid (OA, C18:1) of 9 accession of flax ranged from 17.1 (Alfonso Inta) to 26.7% (Royale). The content of stearic acid in evaluated genotypes of flax ranged from 2.3 (Alfonso Inta) to 5.0% (Tabare, Szegedi 30) and the content of palmitic acid ranged from 4.7 (Dufferin) to 6.0% (Olin). The content of fat ranged from 42.7 (Olin) to 52.0% (AC Mc Duff). The fatty acid ratio n-6/n-3 ranged from 0.23/1 (Tabare) to 0.32/1 (AC Mc Duff).

Effect of whole flax seed and carbohydrase enzymes on gastrointestinal morphology, muscle fatty acids, and production performance in broiler chickens

Flax seed is a rich source of α-linolenic acid (18:3 n-3). Feeding broiler birds flax seed can increase n-3 fatty acids in meat tissues. However, non-starch polysaccharides in flax seed decrease nutrient digestibility and can have a negative impact on bird performance and muscle fatty acid content. Addition of carbohydrase enzymes to flax-based broiler diets can decrease the anti-nutritive effects of non-starch polysaccharides. An experiment was conducted to investigate on the effect of flax seed and carbohydrase enzyme foregut morphology, muscle tissue, fatty acids, and bird performance. A total of 112 five-day-old broiler chicks were assigned to one of four treatments: Flax10 (corn-soybean meal basal diet adjusted for 10% flax), Flax15 (basal diet adjusted for 15% flax), Flax10E (Flax10 + 0.05% enzyme), and Flax15E (Flax 15 + 0.05% enzyme). Addition of enzyme led to large increases in villi height and villi width in the jejunum of birds fed Flax10 and increases in crypt depth in the jejunum of birds fed Flax15 (P < 0.05). The ratio of villi height to crypt depth was larger in the duodenum and jejunum of birds fed Flax10E when compared to Flax10 (P < 0.05). Feeding the Flax15 diet led to a significant decrease in total lipids in breast muscle compared to Flax10 (P < 0.05). The effect of level of flax or enzyme supplementation was minimal on the fatty acids measured in breast muscle except for total n-6 fatty acids which was higher (P < 0.05) in Flax15 when compared to Flax10. In thigh muscle, stearic acid, arachidonic acid, and total n-6 fatty acids were higher in birds fed Flax15 vs. Flax10. Feeding Flax15 led to a reduction in dry matter of excreta when compared to Flax10 (P < 0.05). There were no differences in BW, average daily gain, or feed consumption during the starter or grower phase due to flax level or enzyme addition (P > 0.05).

Performance and egg quality of laying hens fed flaxseed: highlights on n-3 fatty acids, cholesterol, lignans and isoflavones

Flaxseed is a rich source of α-linolenic acid and phytoestrogens, mainly lignans, whose metabolites (enterodiol and enterolactone) can affect estrogen functions. The present study evaluated the influence of dietary flaxseed supplementation on reproductive performance and egg characteristics (fatty acids, cholesterol, lignans and isoflavones) of 40 Hy-Line hens (20/group) fed for 23 weeks a control diet or the same diet supplemented with 10% of extruded flaxseed. The flaxseed diet had approximately three times the content of lignans (2608.54 ng/g) as the control diet, mainly secoisolariciresinol diglucoside (1534.24 v. 494.72 ng/g). When compared with the control group, hens fed flaxseed showed a similar deposition rate (72.0% v. 73.9%) and egg yield. Furthermore, there was no effect of flaxseed on the main chemical composition of the egg and on its cholesterol content. Estradiol was higher in the plasma of the control group (1419.00 v. 1077.01 pg/ml) probably due to the effect of flaxseed on phytoestrogen metabolites. The plasma lignans were higher in hens fed flaxseed, whereas isoflavones were lower, mainly due to the lower equol value (50.52 v. 71.01 ng/ml). A similar trend was shown in eggs: the flaxseed group had higher level of enterodiol and enterolactone, whereas the equol was lower (198.31 v. 142.02 ng/g yolk). Secoisolariciresinol was the main lignan in eggs of the flaxseed group and its concentration was three times higher then control eggs. Flaxseed also improved the n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids of eggs (3.25 v. 0.92 mg/g egg), mainly DHA, however, its oxidative status (thiobarbituric reactive substances) was negatively affected. In conclusion, 10% dietary flaxseed did not affect the productive performance of hens or the yolk cholesterol concentration, whereas the lignans and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid content of eggs improved. Further details on the competition between the different dietary phytoestrogens and their metabolites (estrogen, equol, enterodiol and enterolactone) should be investigated.

APA-style human milk fat analogue from silkworm pupae oil: Enzymatic production and improving storage stability using alkyl caffeates.

Silkworm pupae oil derived from reeling waste is a rich source of α-linolenic acid (ALA), which has multipal applications. ALAs were added in sn-1, 3 positions in a triacylglycerol (TAG) to produce an APA-human milk fat analogues (APA-HMFAs, A: α-linolenic acid, P: palmitic acid). The optimum condition is that tripalmitin to free fatty acids of 1:12 (mole ratio) at 65 °C for 48 h using lipase Lipozyme RM IM. Results show that, the major TAG species that comprised APA-HMFAs were rich in ALA and palmitic acid, which contained 64.52% total unsaturated fatty acids (UFAs) and 97.05% PA at the sn-2 position. The melting point of APA was −27.5 °C which is much lower than tripalmitin (40.5 °C) indicating more plastic character. In addition, the practical application of alkyl caffeates as liposoluble antioxidants in APA was developed. Alkyl caffeate showed a superior IC50 (1.25–1.66 μg/mL) compared to butyl hydroxy anisd (1.67 μg/mL) and L-ascorbic acid-6-palmitate (L-AP) (1.87 μg/mL) in DPPH analysis. The addition of ethyl caffeate to oil achieved a higher UFAs content (73.58%) at high temperatures. Overall, APA was obtained from silkworm pupae oil successfully, and the addition of caffeates extended storage ranges for APA-HMFAs.

Alyssum homolocarpum seeds: phytochemical analysis and effects of the seed oil on neural stem cell proliferation and differentiation.

Pharmacognostic evaluation of medicinal plants may assess their current applications and possibly results in finding new active components. In this study, ash and extractive values and high performance thin layer chromatography fingerprints of Alyssum homolocarpum (Brassicaceae) seed extracts were investigated to elucidate its composition. Differential scanning calorimetry and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis were employed to determine the components of A. homolocarpum seed oil (AHO). Neurosphere assay, in vitro differentiation and immunofluorescence analysis were performed to evaluate the effects of oral administration of AHO (0.5 or 1g/kg/day for 14days) on proliferation and differentiation of neural stem cells (NSCs) in adult male BALB/c mice. Total, acid-insoluble and water-soluble ash values were determined as 45.83±5.85, 6.67±2.89 and 28.33±2.89mg/g, respectively. The extractive values were 4.90, 0.43 and 0.56% (w/w) for n-hexane, dichloromethane and ethanolic extracts, respectively. Interestingly, AHO was mainly composed of α-linolenic acid (89.71%), β-sitosterol (3.3mg/g) and campesterol (0.86mg/g). Administration of AHO at 1g/kg/day significantly increased proliferation of NSCs, as evidenced by an increase in mean neurosphere-forming frequency per brain (872.7±15.17) and neurosphere diameter (101±2.48µm) compared to the control group (424.3±59.29 and 78.63±1.7µm, respectively; P<0.05). AHO treatment did not affect in vitro differentiation of the harvested NSCs. Our data show that A. homolocarpum seed oil is a rich source of α-linolenic acid and β-sitosterol with potential therapeutic application to enhance NSC proliferation and recruitment in neurological diseases.

Temporal analysis of the effect of extruded flaxseed on the swine gut microbiota.

Flaxseed is a rich source of α-linolenic acid, an essential ω-3 fatty acid reported to have beneficial health effects in humans. Feeding swine a diet supplemented with flaxseed has been found to enrich pork products with ω-3 fatty acids. However, the effect of flaxseed supplementation on the swine gut microbiota has not been assessed to date. The purpose of this study was to investigate if extruded flaxseed has any impact on the bacterial and archaeal microbiota in the feces of growing-finishing pigs over a 51-day period, using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) and real-time PCR. Bacterial DGGE profile analysis revealed major temporal shifts in the bacterial microbiota with only minor ones related to diet. The archaeal microbiota was significantly less diverse than that of Bacteria. The majority of bacterial DGGE bands sequenced belonged to the Firmicutes phylum while the archaeal DGGE bands were found to consist of only 2 species, Methanobrevibacter smithii and Methanosphaera stadtmanae. The abundance of Bacteroidetes decreased significantly from day 0 to day 21 in all diet groups while the abundance of Firmicutes was relatively stable across all diet cohorts and sampling times. There was also no significant correlation between pig mass and the ratio of Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes. While the addition of extruded flaxseed to the feed of growing-finishing pigs was beneficial for improving ω-3 fatty acid content of pork, it had no detectable impact on the fecal bacterial and archaeal microbiota, suggesting that extruded flaxseed may be used to improve meat quality without adverse effect on the swine gut microbiota or animal performance.

Effect of the Camelina sativa oil on the performance, essential fatty acid level in tissues and fat-soluble vitamins content in the livers of broiler chickens

Camelina (Camelina sativa) oil (CO) is rich source of α-linolenic acid. The diet for broiler chickens was supplemented with camelina oil and it was compared with diets supplemented with soybean oil (SO) and rapeseed oil (RO). A total of 90 one-day-old Ross 308 broiler chickens were used for a 35-d study, and chickens were allocated to 15 cages and 6 broiler chickens/cage. Cages were randomly assigned to three dietary treatments with five cages per treatment. The temperature and humidity were controlled, and broiler chickens had continuous access to feed and water. No differences were observed for growth performance. The addition of CO to the diet increased the α-linolenic acid content of the muscle tissues and abdominal fat (P<0.001). The α-linolenic acid content in the thigh muscle fat was 9.96% of fatty acids (FA) in the CO group and 1.51% of FA in the RO group, and the α-linolenic acid content in the breast muscle fat was 4.12% of FA in the CO group and 0.57% of FA in the RO group. The type of oil added to the diet had no effect on the accumulation of vitamins A and E in the livers of broiler chickens. The results of growth performance indicated that CO is similar to SO and RO as a dietary component. However, the type of oil impacted the fatty acid profile. These results showed the usefulness of CO in producing food enriched with α-linolenic acid.

Antioxidants and antioxidant enzymes status of rats fed on n-3 PUFA rich Garden cress (Lepidium Sativum L) seed oil and its blended oils.

Garden cress (Lepidium sativum L) seed oil (GCO) is a rich source of α-linolenic acid (ALA, 33.6%) and the oil has a fairly balanced SFA, MUFA and PUFA ratio. In this study we have investigated the effect of GCO and its blends with n-6 PUFA rich edible vegetable oils sunflower oil (SFO), rice bran oil (RBO) and sesame oil (SESO) on antioxidant status of oils and antioxidative enzymes in Wistar rats. Physical blending of GCO with n-6 PUFA rich vegetable oils (SFO, RBO and SESO) increased content of natural antioxidants such as tocopherols, oryzanol and lignans, decreased the n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio and improved the radical scavenging activity of blended oils. Dietary feeding of GCO and its blended oils for 60days, increased the tocopherols levels (12.2-21.6%) and activity of antioxidant enzymes namely catalase, glutathione peroxidase (GPx), but did not affect the activity of glutathione reductase (GR), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione S-transferase (GST) in liver compared to native oil fed rats. Thus, blending of GCO with other vegetable oil decreased n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio (>2.0) and dietary feeding of GCO blended oils increased the antioxidant status and activity of antioxidant enzymes (catalase and GPx) in experimental rats.

ω-3-Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Colon Cancer

C olorectal cancer is the third most common cancer in USA. American Cancer Society has estimated about 103,170 cases of colon and 40,290 cases of rectal cancer in 2012. Colorectal cancer deaths account for 9% of all cancer deaths; 51,690 deaths from colorectal cancer are estimated in 2012 [1]. Fatty acid composition of dietary fat is one of detrimental factors in colon cancer development. Studies have indicated that diets containing high level of ω-6-polyunsaturated fatty acids such as linoleic acid enhance whereas diets containing ω-3- polyunsaturated fatty acids such as eicosapentaenoic acid reduce chemically-induced colon cancer development in rodents [2,3]. Diets containing fish oil (source of ω-3-polyunsaturated fatty acid) decrease colon carcinogenesis [4]. The effects of dietary fish oil on eicosanoid metabolism have been implicated as a potential mechanism of colon cancer prevention. ω-3-Fattyacids present in fish oil inhibit oxidative metabolism of arachidonic acid by the cyclooxygenase (COX) pathway responsible for prostaglandin synthesis which act as a tumor promoter [5]. Dietary mustard oil, a rich source of α-linolenic acid, an ω-3fatty acid prevented colon cancer development in rats [6]. Dietary flaxseed oil, another very rich source of α-linolenic acid was effective in preventing colon cancer development in rats. Dietary flaxseed oil decreased the ratio of ω-6 to ω-3-fatty acids to optimal levels [7]. Dietary flaxseed meal, a rich source of α-linolenic acid, an ω-3-fatty acid and lignans also prevented colon cancer development in rats by increasing ω-3-fatty acids in serum and tissues, and decreasing expressions of COX-1 and COX-2 levels in tissues [8]. α-Linolenic acid and lignans (enterodiol and enterolactone derived from flaxseed) caused a decrease in cell proliferation and an increase in apoptosis in Caco-2, human colon cancer cells [9]. Dietary flaxseed also prevented intestinal tumor development in APC M in mice (a transgenic mice with mutation in APC gene causing development of spontaneous intestinal tumors) by increasing ω-3-fatty acids and lignans, and decreasing expressions of COX-1 and COX-2 levels [10]. Dietary canola oil, another source of α-linolenic acid was effective in preventing colon cancer development in rats by increasing ω-3-fatty acids in serum and tissues and decreasing the expression of COX-1 and COX-2 in tissues [11]. These studies have provided evidence indicating consumption of ω-3-fatty acids provides protection against colon cancer development in animal models and cell culture. Thus, dietary consumption of ω-3 fatty acid (fish, mustard, flax, canola) may provide protection in humans too. However, further studies in human volunteers are needed to establish the efficacy of ω-3-fatty acids for preventing colon cancer.

Fatty acids and β-carotene in Australian purslane ( Portulaca oleracea) varieties

The fatty acid profile and β-carotene content of a number of Australian varieties of purslane ( Portulaca oleracea) were determined by GC and HPLC. The total fatty acid content ranged from 1.5 to 2.5 mg/g of fresh mass in leaves, 0.6 to 0.9 mg/g in stems and 80 to 170 mg/g in seeds. α-Linolenic acid (C 18:3ω3) accounted for around 60% and 40% of the total fatty acid content in leaves and seeds, respectively. Longer-chain omega-3 fatty acids were not detected. The β-carotene content ranged from 22 to 30 mg/g fresh mass in leaves. These results indicate that Australian purslane varieties are a rich source of α-linolenic acid and β-carotene.

Omega-3-Fatty Acid Concentration in Portulaca oleracea is Altered by Nitrogen Source in Hydroponic Solution

Purslane (Portulaca oleracea L.) has been identified as an exceptionally rich source of α-linolenic acid (LNA), an essential fatty acid that is beneficial in reducing the incidence of coronary heart disease and certain cancers. In general, about two thirds of the LNA in terrestrial plants is associated with chloroplasts. A green-leafed unnamed cultivar of purslane and a golden-leafed cultivar `Goldberg' were grown hydroponically in a complete nutrient solution with 14.3 mm nitrogen provided as nitrate (NO3-) and ammonium (NH4+) forms to yield NO3--N: NH4+-N ratios of 1:0, 0.75:0.25, 0.5:0.5, and 0.25:0.75. Young leaves, harvested 18 days after treatment initiation, were analyzed to determine the fatty acid composition and concentrations, and thylakoid protein and chlorophyll concentrations. Although the leaves of plants grown with a NO3--N: NH4+-N ratio of 0.5:0.5 contained 239% and 114% more LNA than plants grown with ratios 1:0 and 0.75:0.25, respectively, they contained only 41% and 26% more chlorophyll. The green-leafed cultivar had higher (39%) chlorophyll concentrations than `Goldberg', but both cultivars had similar LNA concentrations [per g dry weight (DW)]. These results suggest that the LNA concentration in the fatty acid-rich species P. oleracea may not be as closely associated with chlorophyll concentration as reported earlier for other plants. Leaves of plants grown in solutions with 0.25:0.75 NO3--N: NH4+-N ratio contained 35% less LNA per g leaf DW than the leaves of plants grown in nutrient solutions with a 0.5:0.5 ratio. Although total DW production was not affected by the NO3--N: NH 4+-N ratios in the nutrient solutions, the green-leafed cultivar produced higher fresh weight, leaf area, total DW, and number of shoots than `Goldberg'.