Rice Straw Fiber Research Articles

Fabrication and strength analysis of rice straw fibers reinforced epoxy biodegradable composite

In this study fabrication and strength analysis of rice straw fiber reinforced epoxy biodegradable composite for the use of industrial application. Biodegrable composite made from more the one component. The composite is made by hand-layup technique. For cleaning of rice straw we are using hot water and 2% NaOH solution for removal of impurities like silica and ligning. The mechanical testing tensile strength, flexural strength, flexural modulus and young’s modulus test has been done with hot water treated fiber, NaOH treated fiber and untreated fiber with fiber volume fraction 0%, 10%, 20%,30%,40% and 50%. The bio degradable composite fabricated with Epoxy and Rice straw. All testing was done according to ISO and ASTM standard.

Experimental investigation and comparative analysis of mechanical properties of cross layer rice straw fibers filled reinforced epoxy biodegradable composite

In this work bidirectional rice straw fiber was used for the production of biodegrable composite. Rice straw treated with hot water and 2% NaOH solution for the removal of impurities like dust, silica and ligning. The ligning % play very important role for the fabrication of composite with natural fiber. Treatment of natural fiber was very much essential for fabrication of composite material. Three type of specimen single layer (A), double layer (B), triple layer (C) bidirectional rice straw fiber and epoxy resin with hot water treated fiber and NaOH treated fiber. All prepared composite sample analysis and compared their mechanical property with each other. All testing was done according to ISO and ASTM standard.

Efficacy of modified rice straw fibre on properties of cementitious composites

Appropriate treatment/disposal of rice straw as an agricultural waste has been a big challenge in rural areas. In this study, rice straw was recycled as a cheap and renewable fibre for enhancing the performance of cement-based composites. To improve the properties of fibre, two modification approaches were designed, namely, room-temperature (20 °C) alkaline (sodium hydroxide) treatment, and high-temperature (90 °C) alkaline treatment. The physicochemical characteristics of raw and modified straw fibres were analysed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and fibre uniaxial stretching. The results showed that alkali-solution treatment increased cellulose proportion, slenderness ratio, tensile strength of fibre, and reduced its water absorption. Between two modification schemes, high-temperature treatment was more effective than the room-temperature treatment. The fibre modification eliminated the inhibitory effect of straw fibre on cement hydration verified by isothermal calorimeter analysis. Mechanical strength results illustrated that the addition of raw straw fibre had a marginal or even adverse effect on the mechanical properties of composites, due to its inherent porous structure and suppression effect on cement hydration. By contrast, the incorporation of modified fibres enhanced flexural strength and compressive strength of composites by 12.5%–22.3% and 4.7%–14.6%, respectively, especially for the addition of high-temperature treated fibre. Therefore, rice straw fibre after high-temperature alkaline treatment can be recycled for reinforcing cementitious composites, particularly suitable for on-site construction use in rural areas.

A new eco-friendly mechanical technique for production of rice straw fibers for medium density fiberboards manufacturing

Rice straw is the most abundant lignocellulosic waste material that may be exploited to produce natural fibers used in manufacturing of medium density fiberboards. However, it contains high amount of wax that impairs the absorptivity of the produced fibers to liquid adhesives. Moreover, the high level of silica and ash contents may cause a severe damage to the conventional disk refiners that used to produce fibers. Therefore, costly chemical pretreatments are essential to produce rice straw fibers which prohibit commercial production of rice straw medium density fiberboard. This paper presents a novel eco-friendly mechanical technique for production of rice straw fibers. A full-scale manufacturing system was designed and established to produce rice straw fibers as an alternative raw material for manufacturing of medium density fiberboards. The proposed technique, in contrary to conventional techniques, eliminates the use of harmful chemicals and minimizes power consumption. Moreover, better fibers with minimum silica content and enhanced water absorptivity properties were obtained. Full material characterization of the produced fibers was carried out using scanning electron microscope and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. The mechanical and physical properties of the produced fiberboards were tested and were proved to meet the standard requirements of EN 622, EN 317, and EN 310.

Photocatalytic hydrogel layer supported on alkali modified straw fibers for ciprofloxacin removal from water

Rice straw is a potential green resource due to its low cost and high renewability. From the perspective of waste reutilization and green chemistry, an alkali-cooking modified rice straw fiber (AMSF) was prepared as a biosorbent to remove ciprofloxacin (CPFX) from water. To gain the ability of self-generation, a TiO2 hydrogel layer was coated on the surface of AMSF. The adsorption equilibrium was reached at approximately 35 min for AMSF, and the maximum adsorption capacity was 93.5 mg/g. The CPFX removal ability was enhanced by the TiO2-gel layer, especially under ultraviolet, and the CPFX removal quantity by TiO2@AMSF can be 153, 112, and 60 mg/g under ultraviolet, natural light and dark, respectively. The whole adsorption-degradation reaction lasted up to 450 min, and the pseudo-second-order model showed better linearity compared to the Langmuir-Hinshelwood. The CPFX removal ability of TiO2@AMSF in fluoroquinolone antibiotics system was also evaluated, and the adsorption and photodegradation effects were the removal mechanism. Providing more TiO2-gel layers or adding a UV irradiation can be an effective way to regenerate saturated TiO2@AMSF.

Effect of Mixing of Rice Straw to Enhance the Characteristics of Soil

The foundation should have sufficient strength to support any land based structure. The soil surrounding the foundation plays a very important role. The strength of soil should be maintained according to the loading conditions. The soil reinforcement process helps to attain the required engineering properties in soil for the construction purpose. The necessity of enhancing soil properties came to the light from the beginning of construction work. Soil reinforcement was used in India in 1970’s but proper techniques and skilled labour was not available that's why in India ancient methods for soil reinforcement was using, show the soil reinforcement lots lost its importance. Recently, the demand for infrastructure, raw materials and fuel is improving show the process of soil reinforcement rising its importance up again. According to the better research, materials and equipment, soil reinforcement is the cost effective and popular method for improving the soil properties. Here, in this paper, soil reinforcement analysis completed with the mixing of soil with the powder produced from burning of rice straws fibers (parali) by an specific method. The main motive of this analysis is to find out the utilization of waste rice straw fiber materials in foundation construction without open burning of waste so we can reduce the pollution which create by the open burning of rice straw in the fields.

Green aerogels from rice straw for thermal, acoustic insulation and oil spill cleaning applications

For the first time, a versatile, novel and environmentally-friendly aerogel was successfully fabricated from rice straw – one of the most abundant agricultural waste in South-east Asia. The final product is able to be applied in a wide range of applications including oil-spill cleaning, thermal insulation and acoustic absorption. The fabrication process is simple, cost-efficient and totally green without disposal of harmful by-products into the environment. Specifically, rice straw fibers were dispersed along with reinforcers (PVA or cationic starch) followed by freeze-drying to form shaped aerogels. Those samples were then turned into hydrophobic by coating with MTMS using chemical vapor deposition (CVD) method to produce aerogels with exceptional water repellency (WCA exceeding 1500). The morphology, pore structure and physical properties of the aerogels were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), thermal conductivity, water contact angle (WCA) measurements, oil adsorption and sound absorption measurements. The aerogel samples exhibit extremely low densities (0.05–0.06 g/cm3), high porosities (~97%), excellent heat reduction properties with low thermal conductivities (0.034–0.036 W/m.K), good mechanical properties (Young modulus up to 47 kPa) and oil adsorption efficiency proven with the capacity up to 13 g/g. In addition, huge potential of rice straw aerogels in sound absorption applications is also demonstrated with high noise reduction coefficient (up to 0.6). The samples still retain their thermal insulation, sound insulation capability and hydrophobicity after 2-month exposure in ambient environment.

Development of Composites from Polyester Reinforced with Rice Straw and with Hybrid Rice Straw/Glass Fiber

Developments in the area of natural fiber reinforced composites have based mainly on random discontinuous natural fibers. Rice straw is used as one of these discontinuous fibers. Uniform distribution of discontinuous natural fibers in composite laminates is difficult to be attained. Consequently, the purpose of this study is to develop new rice straw mat with a good distribution of rice straw fibers that reduces the discontinuity and make the mat nearly homogeneous. The rice straws are treated with 2 wt % sodium hydroxide solution then formed into a mat. This new rice straw mat is used to reinforce a polyester matrix. Hybrid composites are produced from rice straw mat and glass fiber reinforced polyester. Tensile, flexural, shear, impact, hardness, and water absorption behavior of these natural composites are investigated. Rice straw composites have higher mechanical properties than pure polyester. Hybridization enhances the mechanical properties over rice straw composites. The fracture surfaces of natural fiber reinforced polyester composites are examined by scanning electron microscope.

Development of Rice Straw Paper Coated with Pomelo Peel Extract for Bio-Based and Antibacterial Packaging

This study aimed to develop paper packaging from rice straw fibers with its function as antibacterial activity obtained from pomelo (Citrus maxima) peels. Paper with ca. 106.42 g/m2 basis weight, 0.34 mm thickness, 34.15 % brightness and 78.7 N.m/g tensile index was prepared from rice straw fibers and pulps. Bioactive compounds of crude pomelo peels extracted using maceration technique with 75% (v/v) ethanol were coated onto rice straw papers at concentration of 10, 15 and 20 % (w/v). The coated papers had similar thickness, and slightly lower tensile index and brightness as compared to those of control papers. Scanning electron microscopy confirmed the changes of surface and cross-section structures of coated and uncoated papers. The rice straw coated papers had relatively greater barrier property to prevent water absorption. In addition, the coated papers with pomelo peel extract showed significant antibacterial activity against food pathogenic bacteria, including Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus and Escherichia coli. This study reveals the benefits of natural by-products as a potential material for active packaging.

Effect of Dietary Fiber Sources on In-Vitro Fermentation and Microbiota in Monogastrics.

Simple SummaryThe recent findings on the role played by fiber constituents during digestion remain controversial, while the impact of high fiber feeds on digestion depends on the type, form, and the level of inclusion of fiber in the diet. This study aims to determine the effect of different fiber forms in pig diets on intestinal nutrient digestibility, hindgut fermentation, and microbial community composition. We formulated four experimental groups (group A = alfalfa, group B = corn stalk, group C = rice straw, and group D = controls) to evaluate the effect of dietary fiber sources on in-vitro fermentation and microbiota. Cornstalk showed a high digestibility when compared to alfalfa and rice straw. Greater digestibility of corn stalk than rice straw and alfalfa in these results may be due to the lower crude fiber content in corn stalk when compared to alfalfa and rice straw. In conclusion, corn stalk dietary fiber improved dry matter digestibility in simulated in vitro digestion experiments, whereas rice straw fiber improved volatile fatty acid content in simulated in vitro digestion and fermentation efficiency. Furthermore, alfalfa fiber improved the thickness of Firmicutes and Lactobacillus supernatant in simulated in vitro digestion treatments. Feed fiber composition is usually considered as one of the factors that have an impact on digestive tract microbiota composition. The investigations on the level of fermentation and in-vitro digestibility of different fibers are not well understood. The aim of the current study is to determine the effect of different fiber sources on intestinal nutrient digestibility, hindgut fermentation, and microbial community composition under in vitro conditions using pigs’ hindgut as a model. The experimental treatment diets contained alfalfa hay, cornstalk, and rice straw. Cornstalk treatment displayed higher digestibility compared to alfalfa hay and rice straw; similar results were observed with in-vitro digestibility using intestinal digesta. Firmicutes were the most abundant phyla (Firmicutes = 89.2%), and Lactobacillus were the prominent genera (75.2%) in response to alfalfa compared to rice straw and cornstalk treatments. In simulated in-vitro digestion, corn stalk fiber improved dry matter digestibility; rice straw fiber improved volatile fatty acid content and fermentation efficiency. Alfalfa fiber improved the thickness of deposited Firmicutes and Lactobacillus.

PVC/rice straw/SDBS-modified graphene oxide sustainable Nanocomposites: Melt mixing process and electrical insulation characteristics

The incorporation of nanomaterials in the mixing process of polymers can effectively improve the melt mixing rheology of composites. This fact can be employed to control the morphology of sustainable composites comprised of incompatible ingredients such as natural fibers and polymers. The conventional solution to the incompatibility of natural-fiber fillers and polymers is to surface modify the natural filler. In this work, the role of graphene oxide and surface-modified graphene oxide nanosheets on the mixing rheology of a PVC/rice straw system are studied and impacts these nanosheets have on the viscosity of this sustainable system are used to reduce the morphological imperfections. The introduction of either graphene oxide or sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate (SDBS)-modified graphene oxide nanosheets increased the melt mixing viscosity of PVC/rice straw compounds. Such a change in the melt mixing rheology of compounds resulted in an improvement in the morphological and structural characteristics. When only 1 phr SDBS-modified graphene oxide nanosheets were introduced in a PVC system filled with 15 phr rice straw fibers, more than 23 and 41% enhancement in the tensile ultimate strength of the system is achieved, compared to the neat PVC and the PVC/15 phr rice straw composite, respectively. Moreover, dynamic-mechanical results confirm that the incorporation of 1 phr SDBS-modified graphene oxide nanosheets resulted in more than 7% reduction in the damping peak intensity of the system, suggesting the formation of interactions between system ingredients. The electrical conductivity of the fabricated sustainable PVC/rice straw/SDBS-modified graphene oxide nanocomposite is in the range of 10−9–10−5 S/m, suggesting it can be a good candidate for insulating applications.

Synthesis of developed rice straw sheets and glass fiber-reinforced polyester composites

In this study, a sheet of random rice straw fiber was developed. These rice straw sheets were used to reinforce polyester matrix. Synthesis of rice straw sheets and glass fibers as synthetic fibers-reinforced polyester composites were investigated. Several new stacking sequences were fabricated with random glass fiber mats with different areal densities (225 g/m2, 300 g/m2, and 450 g/m2) and rice straw sheets. The specific mechanical properties of these natural/synthetic fiber composites were investigated. Scanning electron microscopy was used to study the morphology of the fracture surfaces of the fabricated hybrid composites. Experimental results showed that specific tensile and flexural stiffness of rice straw fiber composite is better those obtained with glass fiber composites. The hybrid natural/synthesis composites with alternating glass fiber mat with areal densities 300 g/m2, and rice straw shows higher specific tensile strength than rice straw and other hybrid composites. Hybrid composites with high areal density on the outer surfaces yield a significant increase in flexural-specific strength and hardness as compared to other fabricated composites.

Graphene and Rice-Straw-Fiber-Based 3D Photothermal Aerogels for Highly Efficient Solar Evaporation.

Solar-steam generation is one of the most promising technologies to mitigate the issue of clean water shortage using sustainable solar energy. Photothermal aerogels, especially the three-dimensional (3D) graphene-based aerogels, have shown unique merits for solar-steam generation, such as lightweight, high flexibility, and superior evaporation rate and energy efficiency. However, 3D aerogels require much more raw materials of graphene, which limits their large-scale applications. In this study, 3D photothermal aerogels composed of reduced graphene oxide (RGO) nanosheets, rice-straw-derived cellulose fibers, and sodium alginate (SA) are prepared for solar-steam generation. The use of rice straw fibers as skeletal support significantly reduces the need for the more expensive RGO by 43.5%, turning the rice straw biomass waste into value-added materials. The integration of rice straw fibers and RGO significantly enhances the flexibility and mechanical stability of the obtained photothermal RGO-SA-cellulose aerogel. The photothermal aerogel shows a strong broad-band light absorption of 96-97%. During solar-steam generation, the 3D photothermal aerogel effectively decreases the radiation and convection energy loss while enhancing energy harvesting from the environment, leading to an extremely high evaporation rate of 2.25 kg m-2 h-1, corresponding to an energy conversion efficiency of 88.9% under 1.0 sun irradiation. The salinity of clean water collected during the evaporation of real seawater is only 0.37 ppm. The materials are environmentally friendly and cost-effective, showing great potential for real-world desalination applications.

Determination of mechanical, flowability, and microstructural properties of cemented tailings backfill containing rice straw

China is the world’s major producer of tailings and straw, and they lead to serious environmental and economic problems. This work was conducted to study sustainable rice straw (RS) and tailings utilization for cemented tailings backfill (CTB), and the effect of RS on the properties of CTB was evaluated. The RS fiber of the RS content (0.08, 0.16 and 0.24 wt%) and RS length (0.9, 2 and 4 cm) were used to prepare CTB. RS fibers show slight side effects of a decrease of 5% in the flowability of the fresh CTB slurry because the natural RS fibers with high water absorption cause viscous increases in the fresh CTB slurry. This decrease further decreases with increasing RS fiber content and length. The impact of the RS fibers on the unconfined compressive strength (UCS) and the elastic modulus of the CTB is significant. A UCS of more than 85% CTB and an elastic modulus of more than 74% CTB have been increased more than twice. The RS fiber reinforcement improves the ductility of the CTB and maintains the integrity of the CTB matrix when failure occurs. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) observations analyses revealed that much hydration gel was generated in the RSCTB matrix, and these hydration gels became trapped on the surface of the RS fibers, which established a physical skeleton structure and enhanced the strength of the CTB. Additionally, the RSCTB method can reduce the backfill cost by 24.76% by reducing the consumption of cement, increasing the comprehensive utilization of the RS and tailings, and reducing the environmental pollution caused by industrial and agricultural waste.

Valorisation of shrimp and rice straw waste into food packaging applications

The potential use of chitosan films as a replacement to synthetic polymers in food packaging applications is receiving remarkable attention due to their biodegradability and antimicrobial properties. This study presents the preparation of composite films from chitosan as polymeric matrices, and rice straw and nano rice straw fibres as reinforcements. The films were produced via wet mixing and casting techniques with various reinforcement contents (25–35 wt%). The aim of this research is to investigate the physical, mechanical, chemical, and thermal properties of the synthesized composite films and determine their feasibility for use in food packaging. The synthesized composite films will degrade by the time food is consumed leaving zero waste. Experimental results showed that rice straw fibres and nano-rice straw fibres enhanced the yield strength, fracture strength, and Young‘s modulus in comparison to the unreinforced material, and with reference to Egyptian plastic bags material. Thermal degradation temperature of the chitosan was improved by adding rice straw and nano rice straw compared to chitosan composites, which indicates that the composite thin films can perhaps compete with current thermoplastic synthetic polymers fabricated by melting techniques and serve as an alternative for synthetic plastics. The use of a local (shrimp and rice straw) waste as the source for biodegradable bags, turns food waste problem to being part of the solution of synthetic plastic waste.

The effect of rice straw fiber addition as sound silencer and its effect to concrete mechanical properties

In general, rice straw has not been used optimally, rice straw is currently still used as animal feed, paper-making materials and most of it is burned. In this research, rice straw is used as an added ingredient in the concrete mixture. The addition of rice straw fiber in this research uses 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% variations of the volume. The addition of the straw fiber affects the concrete strength. In slump test, there is an increase in its values by 8, 10, 10, 10, and 1. In compressive strength test, there is a decrease by 70.76%, 68.61%, 54.35%, 53.49% of normal concrete. In the tensile strength test, there is a decrease in the concrete tensile strength value by 52.39 kg / cm2, 38.31 kg / cm2, 35.36 kg / cm2, 25.49 kg / cm2, 25.42 kg / cm2. While on the sound attenuation test, there is an increase on sound absorption coefficient, the greater the variation of rice straw, the higher the sound absorption coefficient value. The relation between concrete strength and sound absorption coefficient shows that the greater the addition of rice straw fiber, the less the strength of concrete while the sound absorption coefficient is greater.

Effect of Fiber Loading and Alkali Treatment on Rice Straw Fiber Reinforced Composite for Automotive Bumper Beam Application

Natural fiber-reinforced composites (NFC) comprise the principal subject for the wide-ranging research in the material industries with lower costs. The use of rice straw as the reinforcement material for polymer composites intended for car bumper application is reported. This study was aimed to evaluate the composite mechanical properties of tensile and impact strength, as well as the microscopic structures, under the alkali treatment of NaOH and 10, 20, 30 and 40% (v/v) fiber loading variations. The results showed that the mechanical properties of alkali-treated composites were improved relative to the untreated fiber-reinforced composites. The highest tensile strength was observed at 14.75 MPa together with the highest impact strength at 23.52 J cm-1 for the alkali-treated and 30% fiber loading composites. This makes the rice straw fiber-reinforced composites at 30% fiber loading competitive against the standard commercial bumper with a maximum tensile strength of 8.08 MPa and impact strength of 23.31 J cm-1. The precise claim of alkali conduct with sodium hydroxide indicates the improvement of tensile and impact strength of the RSF-reinforced composites. This study also shows fiber loading provides various mechanical properties of the composites. The rice straw fiber, at 30% fiber loading attached with the alkali treatment comprises an alternative material to reinforce a polymer composite for automotive bumper application with a viable tensile and effect strong point against a marketable bumper.

Physical, chemical and mechanical properties of corn sheath as pulp and paper raw material

Most papers are made from virgin wood-based pulp of hardwood sources but recently, softwood have received enormous attention as alternative to hard wood because the hardwood takes a significant number of years to mature enough for use in the pulp and paper industry unlike softwood which are majorly annual plants. The annual crop in focus in this work is the yellow open-pollinated variety of corn which generates tons of waste at harvest. A novel attempt is made to ascertain the viability of corn sheaths as raw material for the pulp and paper industry by carrying out a comprehensive analysis on the pulp and paper made from the pulp. The sheaths were dried, shred and cut into pieces suitable for the digester and the pulps obtained were analysed for physico-chemical properties. Hand sheets were also made using the generated pulp and its physico-mechanical properties were analysed. Results obtained were compared with pulp from corn husks from other parts of the country, three Nigerian fibre sources – silk cotton, bagasse and rice straw and other foreign non-wood sources and found to be of competitive properties. Pulp properties of Lignin content, ash content, cellulose, hot and cold water solubility of the fibres were 13.72 ± 1.21%, 1.27 ± 0.23%, 53.26 ± 1.11%, 15.20 ± 2.11 and 6.14 ± 2.43 respectively while the mechanical properties of paper from the pulp were Bursting strength (282.163 KPa m2/g), Tear strength (146.119), Tensile strength (257.6N/m) and Tensile Index (3.9Nm/g). It was found that in all properties, the corn sheath was better than the rice straw fibers but not as good as the silk cotton and bagasse fibers. However, the corn sheath has been identified, as a viable raw material for the pulp and paper industry in Nigeria.

Study of Hybridization Effect of New Developed Rice Straw mat/ Glass Fiber Reinforced Polyester Composite

ABSTRACT Rice comes in the second rank in the world’s major cereal harvest. However, few studies investigate the effect of addition of rice straw as reinforcement to the polymer. In this study, a new mat of random rice straw fiber was developed to ensure a good distribution of rice straw. These rice straw mats were used as reinforcements to polyester. Besides, hybrid composites were manufactured from polyester reinforced with rice straw fiber mat as a natural fiber and glass fiber as synthetic fiber. Six different stacking sequences were made by alternating random glass fiber layers having different areal densities with four layers of the developed rice straw fiber mats. Tensile, flexural, shear, impact and water absorption properties of these hybrid composites were investigated. Generally, the mechanical properties of the composites are improved due to the addition of the glass fibers to the rice straw reinforcements that displays the positive effect of hybridization. The morphology of the fracture surfaces was investigated by scanning electron microscopy.

Improvement in lateral resistance of mortar-free interlocking wall with plaster having natural fibres

Housing deficiency and population increase around the globe has led to a search for more cost effective, environment friendly, easy and fast ways of construction. Out of many technologies found, mortar-free interlocked masonry systems were developed to eliminate the deficiency of traditional masonry like poor workman ship, weak brick-mortar interface etc. For such systems against earthquakes, lateral resistance can be enhanced with plaster. But there is a need to further improve the performance of plaster in mortar-free interlocking walls for better ductility. Therefore, in this study, non-plastered wall (as a datum) was compared with plain and fibrous-plastered masonry walls using natural fibres like rice straw and sisal fibres. 2% fibres (by mass of cement) was used. 2200 mm high interlocked block masonry walls (mostly used in poor developing countries) were experimentally tested for out of plane resistance. The research aim was to evaluate the mechanical and dynamic parameters like elastic stiffness, first crack load, energy dissipation, toughness index, frequency and dynamic stiffness. Detail discussion was made on fibrous plaster behaviour. Analytical design flow chart was also developed to evaluate the lateral resistance of the fibrous plastered masonry walls. Sisal fibre reinforced plaster was found better than rice straw reinforced plaster. The factor of increase in peak load, elastic stiffness, energy absorption and toughness over datum was found to be up to 229%, 14 times, 395% and 127%, respectively, for sisal fibre reinforced plastered walling system.