Rice-based Cropping Systems Research Articles

Impact assessment of bgrei programme on cropping intensity, production, productivity and income of farmers in Assam

Bringing Green Revolution to Eastern India (BGREI), a flagship programme under Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY) is intended to address the constraints limiting the productivity of rice-based cropping system and launched in 2010–11 in Eastern India comprising Assam amongst others. The objectives of BGREI were to increase production, productivity, cropping intensity and income of farmers. Hence the study was undertaken in the Jorhat district of Assam to assess the impact of BGREI on the parameters mentioned as above. Multistage stratified random sampling technique was followed and data were collected from 120 respondents comprising 80 beneficiaries and 40 non-beneficiaries from two different agriculture circles. The study found that there was a marginal change in the cropping intensity of the beneficiaries of the programme. In the case of the non-beneficiaries, no steady trend was observed. The productivity and hence production, as well as income, was higher in case of beneficiaries compared to the non-beneficiaries and thus the BGREI programme has a positive impact on the cropping intensity, production, productivity and income of farmers in Assam.

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Bio-economic evaluation of cropping systems for saline coastal Bangladesh: III Benefits of adaptation in current and future environments

Climate change and salinisation present substantial challenges to the sustainability of cropping systems in south-west coastal Bangladesh. This is the third paper in a series reporting a study to assess the impacts of climate change and salinity on the productivity and economic viability of ten current and potential rice-based cropping systems in two coastal villages in Khulna District. In this paper, possible adaptations are assessed, including novel dry-season crops, changed fertilizer use, and changed sowing dates, across five climate and three salinity scenarios. Farmers' estimated, APSIM-simulated, and extrapolated yield distributions were incorporated in budgets for the ten cropping systems, using current and projected salinity levels. Current and projected future prices and costs were used to estimate different measures of profitability. Estimated variability in yields and prices was used to generate probability distributions for these profitability measures, permitting comparison of cropping systems based on profitability and risk. Adaptation through changed fertilizer use (higher or lower, depending on the crop) was projected to give higher returns for some cropping systems. However, larger improvements were obtainable with changes in sowing dates to avoid the worst stresses imposed by climate change and salinity. The loss of production of all crops except watermelon and pumpkin due to salinity was more than offset with changed sowing dates for 2030 and 2060 conditions, irrespective of season. With such adaptations, and allowing for risk, the rice/shrimp system maintained the top ranking in terms of net income per hectare in 2030 and 2060 and the rice/sunflower system maintained the second ranking. The rice/pumpkin/rice system ranked third for 2030 and fourth in 2060 while the rice/maize system moved up to third in 2060.

Impact of Long-Term Application of Organics, Biological, and Inorganic Fertilizers on Microbial Activities in Rice-Based Cropping System

ABSTRACTOrganics, biological, and inorganic fertilizers play a crucial role for improving crop yield and soil properties. Accordingly, we assessed their impact on yield, microbial activities, and transformations of carbon (C), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S) in soils under a 12-year-old intensively cultivated rice (Oriza sativa L.), mustard (Brassica juncea L.), sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) system with sole inorganic (NPK); NPK + farmyard manure (NPKF); NPK + green manure (NPKG) (Sesbania sesban L.), and NPK + green manure + bio-fertilizer (NPKGB) (Azotobacter chroococcum+ pseudomonas putida) treatments in sub-tropical India. The system yield was much higher with NPKF (23%) and NPKGB (18%) than that with NPK. Organic supplementation had a favorable influence on soil microbial biomass C (Cmic), N (Nmic), and activities of extracellular enzymes. Results of principal component and multiple regression analyses showed significant influence of Cmic on system yield (R2 = 91, p = 0.001) and S availability (R2 = 62, p = 0.001). Similarly, mineralizable N and acid phosphatase could predict significantly soil available N (R2 = 85, p = 0.001) and P (R2 = 51; p = 0.001), respectively. Results thus indicated that integrated nutrient management (NPKF/G) improved system yield, nutrient accumulation, and microbial activities in soils.

Determination of optimum and economic doses of fertilizers for rice production in saline and charlands ecosystem

On-farm experiment was carried out for four consecutive seasons: Boro (dry season) 2011-12, Transplanted Aman (T. Aman, wet season) 2012, Boro 2012- 13 and T. Aman 2013 at the farmer’s field in Londonipara, Sonagazi, Feni to develop fertilizer recommendation for rice-based cropping systems in saline and charland ecosystem in Bangladesh. The experiments were designed with eight treatments and laid out in randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. The treatment combinations were: T1 = 100% NPKSZn (STB), T2 = T1 + 25% N, T3 = T1 + 25% NP, T4 = T1 + 25% NK, T5 = T1 + 25% PK, T6 = T1 + 25% NPK, T7 = 75% of T1 and T8 = Absolute control. Results indicated that application of different fertilizers significantly affected the grain yield at all of the seasons. In Boro 2011-12, the highest grain yield was found in treatment T1 (100% STB) while T3 (T1 + 25% NP) gave highest grain yield in Boro 2012-13. Statistically identical yield was observed in Boro 2011-12 with all treatments except control (T8). Highest grain yield was found with T6 (T1 + 25% NPK) treatments in both of T. Aman 2012 and 2013 seasons. Annual straw yield was found more in T6 (T1 + 25% NPK) treatment. All the treatment combinations gave significantly higher yield over the control in all seasons. However, on the basis of yield performance, economic analysis and nutrient absorption, the treatment T6 = T1 + 25% NPK (N225P30K17.5S15Zn4 for Boro and N121P15K9S10Zn3 for T. Aman) performed the best among the treatments.Bangladesh J. Agril. Res. 42(3): 521-529, September 2017

Effect of different cropping systems and nutrient sources on growth, productivity and economics of direct seeded basmati rice (Oryza sativa)

A field experiment was conducted during rainy (kharif) seasons of 2014 and 2015 at New Delhi to evaluate the effects of cropping systems and nutrient sources on growth, root parameters, yield attributes, yields and economics of direct seeded basmati rice (Oryza sativa). On pooled average basis, the highest growth parameters, yield attributes, viz. effective tillers, spike length, grains/panicle and grain weight (g)/spike and yields were associated with inclusion of summer mungbean in the rice-based cropping systems. On pooled average basis, among the nutrient management strategies, 50% recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF) + 25% recommended dose of nitrogen (RDN) through vermicompost (VC) + biofertilizer was found to be best for most of the yield attributes, grain (3.72 t/ha) and straw (7.14 t/ha) yields and gross returns (105.14 × 103 Rupees/ha) followed by 50% RDF + 25% RDN through leaf compost (LC) + biofertilizer. Similarly, the highest root growth length (4.93 cm/cm3), root volume (16.41 cm3) and root dry matter (4.87 g) were registered under treatment 50% RDF + 25% RDN through VC + biofertilizer followed by 50% RDF + 25% RDN through leaf compost (LC) + biofertilizer and then 100% RDF. A strong positive correlation (r2=0.89–0.97) was also observed between yield attributes (effective tillers/m2, grains/panicle, grain weight/panicle and panicle weight) and yield of direct seeded basmati rice. Application of 100% RDF proved better and accrued the highest net returns and B: C ratio (1.54). DSBR–wheat–mungbean or DSBR–cabbage–mungbean cropping system in conjunction with 50% RDF + 25% RDN through VC + biofertilizer or 50% RDF + 25% RDN through leaf compost (LC) + biofertilizer significantly improved growth, yield attributes, leading to enhanced productivity and profitability of rice.

Substantial N2O emission during the initial period of the wheat season due to the conversion of winter-flooded paddy to rice-wheat rotation

Winter-flooded paddy is a typical rice-based cropping system to conserve water for the next rice growing season. Conversion of winter-flooded paddy to rice-wheat rotation has been widely adopted with the development of the water conservation infrastructure and the government's encouragement of winter agriculture in China in recent decades. However, the effects of this conversion on N2O emission are still not clear. Three winter-flooded paddy fields were studied in a split-plot design. One-half of each field was converted to rice-wheat rotation (RW), and the other half remained winter-flooded as rice-fallow (RF). Each plot of RW and RF was further divided into four subplots: three subplots for conventional N fertilizer application (RW-NC and RF-NC) and one for unfertilized treatment (RW-N0 and RF-N0). Conversion of RF-NC to RW-NC increased the N2O emission up to 6.6-fold in the first year and 4.4-fold in the second year. Moreover, N2O emissions for the entire wheat season were 1.74–3.74 kg N ha−1 and 0.24–0.31 kg N ha−1 from RW-NC and RW-N0, respectively, and accounted for 78%–94% and 78%–97% of the total annual amount. N2O emitted during the first 11–21 days of the wheat season from RW-NC was 1.48–3.28 kg N ha−1 and that from RW-N0 was 0.14–0.17 kg N ha−1, which contributed to 66%–82% and 45%–71% of the total annual amount, respectively. High N2O fluxes occurred when the soil water-filled pore space (WFPS) was in the range of 68%–72% and the ratio of available carbon to nitrogen in the soil was <1.42. The contribution of WFPS and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) explained most of the variation of the N2O fluxes compared with the other measured environmental and soil factors. These findings suggest that the conversion of winter-flooded paddy to rice-wheat rotation increased N2O emissions that could be mitigated by controlling the soil moisture and ratio of available soil carbon to nitrogen.

Wheat productivity responses in the rice-based system under different no-till techniques and nitrogen sources.

No-till wheat is gaining popularity in rice-based cropping system as it provides a better chance for timely planting of wheat, management of crop residues, as well as environmental and soil sustainability. However, fertilizer application in no-tillage requires careful attention in order to optimize efficiency of fertilizer use by crops. The present study was conducted to develop the most favorable and economical no-till technique along with best blend of nitrogen for successful wheat production in residue-based cropping system. The experiment was composed of five no-till techniques viz., (1) even spreading of loose rice residue and wheat sowing with turbo seeder, (2) even spreading of loose rice residue and wheat sowing with happy seeder, (3) even spreading of loose rice residue and wheat sowing with zone disc tiller, (4) wheat sowing with conventional zero tillage drill after manual removal of rice residues, and (5) wheat sowing with conventional zero tillage drill after burning of rice residues. There were five blends of nitrogen (N) including (1) 100% N from urea, (2) 75% N from urea and 25% N from ammonium sulfate (AS), (3) 50% N from urea and 50% N from AS, (4) 25% N from urea and 75% N from AS, and (5) 100% N from AS. Different no-till techniques and N treatments significantly affected the stand establishment and yield-related traits of wheat during both growing seasons. Soil physical condition was improved by turbo seeder treatment, while it remained poor in residue burned field sown by conventional zero tillage drill. The results over the years revealed that turbo-seeded wheat with N fertilization in the form of 50% urea+50% AS performed better in terms of productive tillers, grain yield and benefit cost ratio than other no-till techniques along different blends of nitrogen during both years of study. In crux, wheat sowing by turbo seeder along N fertilization in the form of 50% urea+50% AS treatment is a viable and economical option to increase the wheat production in rice-based production system.

Impacts of some upland rice-based cropping systems on soil macrofauna abundance and diversity and black beetle damage to rice

Black beetles (BB: Heteronychus spp.: Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae) are serious constraints to upland rice production in the Madagascar central highlands. From 2002 to 2007 we compared the effects of two soil management and two fertilization modalities in an upland rice-based cropping system on soil macrofauna abundance, diversity and BB damage to rice crops and yield. This cropping system involved a 2-year rotation of upland rice the first year, followed by common bean the second year, with oat as a relay crop under both conventional tillage (CT) and no-tillage soil management (NT), each under both organic (OF) and mineral fertilization (MF). All four modalities (CT-OF; CT-MF; NT-OF and NT-MF) were managed under two plant protection levels (seed dressing with imidacloprid + thiram vs no seed dressing). Herbivorous/detritivorous beetles were the most abundant soil biota, respectively representing more than two-thirds and half of all macrofauna at the outset of the experiment and 4 years later, with the BB Heteronychus arator rugifrons (Fairmaire) being the dominant pest species (herbivore). The Shannon diversity index was reduced significantly between the beginning and the end of the experiment 4 years later, while it was only marginally affected by soil management, fertilization and seed dressing regimes at both sampling dates. Throughout the study period, seed dressing resulted in a significant reduction in BB damage, and in a significantly higher rice grain yield as compared to control. NT management did not enable seed dressing discontinuation based on grain yield and BB damage level after 3 and 4 years of this practice, respectively. In this respect, CT-MF management ranked best in the absence of seed dressing. The reasons for the poor performance of NT management in the studied cropping system as compared to the same strategy used in other systems reported in earlier studies are discussed.

Evaluation of diversified rice-based cropping system for higher productivity under irrigated ecosystem of Central Bihar

A field experiment was conducted at Patna under irrigated condition to evaluate the production potential, water use efficiency and economics of eight rice- based cropping systems involving pulse/oilseed/vegetables as second or third crop. During all the year of experimentations, there were significant variations among cropping systems. Inclusion of pulse/oilseed/vegetables gave higher production and monetary gain over existing rice-wheat system. Maximum rice equivalent yield was recorded in rice-tomato-bottle gourd (39.64 t/ha) followed by rice-potato-onion (29.55 t/ha). Maximum water-use-efficiency was recorded in rice-bottle gourd-tomato (155.2 kg/ha/cm) followed by rice-potato-onion (112.3 kg/ha/cm) and minimum in rice- wheat cropping system (59.2 kg/ha/cm). Highest net return of Rs. 1, 38,905/ha was obtained with rice-tomato-bottle gourd followed by rice-potato-onion (Rs. 97,850/ha) and rice-coriander-lady’s finger (Rs. 96,188/ha). Highest net profit on per rupee investment was also recorded with rice-tomato-bottle gourd (2.64) followed by rice-coriander-lady’s finger (2.49).

Improving water productivity in moisture-limited rice-based cropping systems through incorporation of maize and mungbean: A modelling approach

Crop and water productivities of rice-based cropping systems and cropping patterns in the irrigated lowlands of Sri Lanka have not been researched to the degree warranted given their significance as critical food sources. In order to reduce this knowledge gap, we simulated the water requirement for rice, maize, and mungbean under rice-based cropping systems in the Dry Zone of Sri Lanka. We evaluated the best combinations of crops for minimum water usage while reaching higher crop and water productivities. We also assessed the risk of cultivating mungbean as the third season/sandwich crop (i.e. rice-mungbean-rice) in different regions in Sri Lanka. In the simulation modelling exercise, APSIM-Oryza (rice), APSIM-maize and APSIM-mungbean modules were parameterised and validated for varieties grown widely in Sri Lanka. Moreover, crop productivities and supplementary irrigation requirement were tested under two management scenarios i.e. Scenario 1: irrigate when plant available water content in soil fell below 25% of maximum, and Scenario 2: irrigate at 7-day intervals (current farmer practice). The parameterised, calibrated and validated model estimated the irrigation water requirement (number of pairs of observations (n)=14, R2>0.9, RMSE=66mmseason−1ha−1), and grain yield of maize (n=37, R2>0.95, RMSE=353kgha−1) and mungbean (n=26, R2>0.98, RMSE=75kgha−1) with a strong fit in comparison with observed data, across years, cultivating seasons, regions, management conditions and varieties. Simulated water requirement during the cropping season reduced in the order of rice (1180–1520mm)>maize and mungbean intercrop=maize sole crop (637–672mm)>mungbean sole crop (345mm). The water productivity of the system (crop yield per unit water) could be increased by over 65% when maize or mungbean extent was increased. The most efficient crop combinations to maximise net return were diversification of the land extent as (i) 50% to rice and 50% to mungbean sole crops, or (ii) 25%, 25% and 50% to rice, maize and mungbean sole crops, respectively. Under situations where water availability is inadequate for rice, land extent could be cultivated to 50% maize and 50% mungbean as sole crops to ensure the maximum net return per unit irrigation water (115 Sri Lankan Rupees ha−1mm−1). Regions with high rainfall during the preceding rice cultivating season are expected to have minimum risk when incorporating a third season mungbean crop. Moisture loss through evapotranspiration from the third season mungbean crop was similar to that of a fallowed site with weeds.

Bio-economic evaluation of cropping systems for saline coastal Bangladesh: II. Economic viability in historical and future environments

The objective of this study was to assess the impacts of climate change and salinity on the economic viability of rice-based cropping systems under farmers' current management across current and future climate and salinity scenarios in south-west coastal Bangladesh. Detailed case studies were conducted in two contrasting coastal villages in Dacope Sub-district, Khulna District. Enterprise budgets were developed using APSIM-simulated and extrapolated yields together with crop management, cost, and price data obtained from the villages and estimated from various sources. The projected impact of climate change and salinization on the economic viability (profitability and riskiness) of most cropping systems was not pronounced. Thus rice-based cropping systems are likely to remain viable in both optimistic and pessimistic climate scenarios in coming decades, even allowing for salinization, because some of the positive effects of climate change were projected to offset the sizeable losses due to salinity. Moreover, where small yield declines were projected these were often offset by higher future prices. Sustainably-managed rice/shrimp cropping systems are likely to remain the most profitable option in locations with access to tidal saline water. In other sites, given adequate freshwater for irrigation in the dry season, rice/non-rice cropping systems were projected to be the most viable options, especially incorporating newer crops such as sunflower and maize. Dry-season rice and wheat were not projected to be viable options.

Energy budgeting for designing sustainable and environmentally clean/safer cropping systems for rainfed rice fallow lands in India

Efficient utilization of rice (Oryza sativa L.) fallow (∼11.6 million hectares) systems can accelerate the growth of Indian agriculture. But, bringing more area under cultivation is an energy-demanding process and a source of gaseous emissions in the era of climate change. Hence, development of environmentally sustainable cropping systems require for efficient use of rice-fallow lands for sustainable productivity. Therefore, the present study was conducted with the objective to identify sustainable and environmentally safer cropping systems with low global worming potential (GWP) and low energy requirement for rice fallow land of India. Seven diverse crops (e.g., toria (Brassica campestris var. toria), lentil (Lens culinaris), field pea (Pisum arvense), garden pea (Pisum sativum L.), green gram (Vigna radiata), black gram (Vigna mungo) and maize (Zea mays)) were introduced in rice-fallow system by adopting no-till (NT) production technology to develop sustainable and environmentally cleaner production systems in a subtropical climate of Tripura, India. All these rice-based cropping systems were evaluated on the basis of the energy requirements and system productivity. Results indicated that rice had the highest energy input followed by that for maize and the least for lentil. System productivity regarding equivalent rice yield was the highest in rice–garden pea system. The relative amount of energy input in all cropping systems involved 44–54% for chemical fertilizers, 13–17% for land preparation, 12–15% for diesel and 11–14% for labor. Total energy input of 28,656 MJ per hectare (MJ/ha) was the highest for rice–maize and the lowest of 22,486 MJ/ha for rice–lentil systems. The highest system productivity and the highest energy productivity were obtained for the rice–garden pea system. The GWP was lower for legume-based than that for cereal and oilseed-based cropping systems. The lowest GWP of 7.97 Mg CO2e/ha per yr was observed for the rice-lentil cropping system and the highest GWP of 8.39 Mg CO2e/ha per yr for the rice-maize cropping system. The rice-vegetable pea and rice-lentil cropping systems also had low greenhouse gas emission intensity. The rice–pea and rice–lentil cropping systems are recommended for the region because of their low energy requirement, high energy and system productivity and low GWP. These systems are suited for the efficient utilization of rice fallow lands of eastern India to sustain productivity while adapting and mitigating the climate change.

Intensification and diversification increase land and water productivity and profitability of rice-based cropping systems on the High Ganges River Floodplain of Bangladesh

In the High Ganges River Floodplain of Bangladesh, rice-based cropping systems with lower tillage, labor and irrigation water requirement and higher productivity and profitability are needed. To explore options for achieving this, a replicated cropping system experiment was conducted at Jessore to evaluate cropping system intensification with varying degrees of tillage and rice residue retention. Four cropping systems/establishment methods (CSE) were compared: CSE1: T.boro-T.aman (soil puddling and transplanting of both rice crops); CSE2: CTwheat-CTmungbean-T.aman (wheat and mungbean sown using a power tiller-operated seeder, PTOS, with full tillage (CT) and sowing in a single pass); CSE3: CTwheat-CTmungbean-CTDSaman (all crops sown using a PTOS with full tillage, dry seeded (DS) aman); CSE4: STwheat-STmungbean-STDSaman (all sown using a PTOS with strip tillage (ST)). Two levels of aman residue retention (removed; partial retention) were compared in sub-plots. Water was ponded on the T.boro fields from transplanting until shortly before harvest, while all aman crops were grown using safe alternate wetting and drying (AWD) water management.System productivity (rice equivalent yield, REY) of all wheat-mungbean-aman systems was significantly higher than that of the T.boro-T.aman system in the first and fourth years and when averaged over the four years (by 10% or 1.3tha−1). This was due to higher prices paid to farmers for mungbean and wheat, which more than offset their lower grain yields in comparison with T.boro yield. Irrigation input was lower, by 62–83%, in the wheat-mungbean-aman systems than the T.boro-T.aman system. The wheat-mungbean-aman systems were also economically superior to the T.boro-T.aman system in terms of higher gross margin (by 26%), net return (double) and benefit cost ratio (1.1 vs 1.0) due to both higher returns and lower cost of production. The total labor requirement of all systems was similar; however, it was more evenly distributed throughout the year in the triple cropping systems. Productivity of the wheat-mungbean-aman systems with T.aman and DSaman was similar, despite significantly higher yield of wheat (by 10% or 0.4tha−1) following DSaman, as this was countered by a consistent trend (non-significant) for lower yield of the DSaman than T.aman. However, gross margin of the systems with DSaman was 5% higher than with T.aman due to lower cost of production of the former. Changing from puddling and transplanting to dry seeding of aman reduced total irrigation input to the triple cropping system by 238–879mm (32–65%) over the four years. Establishment of wheat in 40cm of standing aman residues using the PTOS was excellent with both full and strip tillage. Partial aman residue retention gave significantly higher (by 0.8–0.9tha−1) system yield than residue removal from the second year onwards, due to consistent trends for higher yields of all crops (significant in the case of wheat and mungbean). There were no significant differences between the use of CT and ST in the wheat-mungbean-aman system for any of the measured parameters.The results suggest that intensification from T.boro-T.aman to a wheat-mungbean-aman system can increase system productivity and profitability and reduce irrigation requirement, and that replacement of T.aman with DSaman in the triple cropping system can be done with reduced irrigation input, increased wheat yield, and little effect on rice yield. Furthermore, tillage for all three crops can be reduced to strip tillage with no adverse effects on productivity or profitability. Long term studies are needed to determine the full impacts of the changes in crop intensification, establishment method, tillage and residue management on soil properties, irrigation requirement and crop performance.

Use of Climate Forecast Information to Manage Lowland Rice-Based Cropping Systems in Jakenan, Central Java, Indonesia

Smallholder farmers of Jakenan in Central Java must manage several climate-related risks including flood and drought events that occur more frequently, negatively affecting crop production and rural livelihoods. The use of climate forecasts had become important in coping with climate risk. This study assessed how farmers apply climate forecast information to manage rice cropping systems. The objective of this study was to identify factors affecting how farmers are using climate forecast information in rice-based cropping system in Jakenan, Central Java. Materials and Methods: The study was based on face-to-face interviews with smallholder farmers, using a semi-structured questionnaire conducted in 4 villages (Ngastorejo, Tlogorejo, Bungasrejo and Sendangsoko) in Jakenan sub-district from December, 2013 to February, 2014. A total of 100 farmers were selected randomly based on a list of farmers available in each village. The response of respondents was then statistically analyzed using the SPSS version 22 and the mean differences were determined by Independent t-test. Results: Results showed that in Jakenan, Central Java, farmers were influenced by several factors such as management practices, knowledge of climate forecasts and the process of decision making for farming practices with regard to the use of climate forecast. Based on the survey, most of respondents had knowledge of climate forecasts (72%) and used them for planting time determination (94%) and selection of crop varieties (91%). Adjusting planting time and selecting proper crop varieties has become their main strategy in coping with climate variability. Conclusion: Based on these results, the level of farmer knowledge mainly affects the use of climate forecast at the farm level in this region. Better knowledge of climate forecasts enabled farmers to interpret complex situations and adopt innovations hence minimizing climate risk and yield reduction.

Soil Microbial Budgeting as Influenced by Contrasting Tillage and Crop Diversification Under Rice based Cropping Systems in Inseptisol of Bihar

Soil Microbial Budgeting as Influenced by Contrasting Tillage and Crop Diversification Under Rice based Cropping Systems in Inseptisol of Bihar

Performance analysis of different rice-based cropping systems in tropical region of Nepal

Energy inputs, environmental impacts and economic outputs are the main concerns in today's agricultural production systems. The current study investigated the energy, environmental and financial performances of different rice-based cropping systems (CSs). The CSs studied were: Rice-Wheat-Fallow (R-W-F), Rice-Wheat-Maize (R-W-M), Rice-Wheat-Mungbean (R-W-Mu), Rice-Lentil-Maize (R-L-M), Rice-Lentil-Mungbean (R-L-Mu), Rice-Garlic (R-G) and Rice-Onion (R-O). Primary data were collected from 210 randomly selected farms by using structured questionnaire. In this study, Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) was used to analyze the technical efficiencies of the farms in order to estimate their energy inputs saving potential, under different CSs. Among the studied systems, R-W-M, R-L-M and R-W-Mu were found energy efficient, R-L-Mu, R-W-F and R-W-Mu were efficient considering their greenhouse gas emissions, and R-G, R-O and R-L-M were more profitable systems. Based on the combined energy, environmental and economic criteria, we conclude that R-L-M, R-L-Mu and R-W-M are the most energy, environmentally and economically efficient CSs as compared to other systems in the study. The mean technical efficiency scores of farms indicated a considerable potential of reducing energy inputs (18–34%), without compromising the economic return of the majority farms under different CSs. The results of this study support eco-efficient CSs with modern production technologies.

Energy Budgeting and Economics of Rice Based Cropping System under Resource Conservation Technologies in Foothill of Himalayan Region

Energy Budgeting and Economics of Rice Based Cropping System under Resource Conservation Technologies in Foothill of Himalayan Region

Morpho-physiological characterization of soybean genotypes under subtropical environment

Soybean is a promising oilseed crop in rice-based cropping systems in South and Southeast Asia. In spite of immense scope of its expansion, the crop is not being popular to the farmers because of poor yield of the existing cultivars. Therefore, this study evaluated eighty-soybean genotypes of diverse growth habits with a view to searching genotype(s) of desirable morpho-physiological characters and high yield potential. Sixteen quantitative plant traits were evaluated to classify the genotypes into different groups using various multivariate methods. A wide range of variation was found in almost all qualitative plant traits. The study reveals that plants tend to become taller as the phenological cycle is longer. Seed yield was the product of the number of pods per plant, pod weight and seeds per pod. The first three components of principal component analysis explained 75% of the total variations of the soybean genotypes. Using Dendrogram from cluster analysis, the genotypes were grouped into six clusters. The maximum number of genotypes was concentrated in cluster 5 followed by clusters 4. The phenology, plant height, the number of pods and seed yield were the important discriminating variables in grouping the genotypes. The number of pods per plant displayed the principal role in explaining the maximum variance in the genotypes. The clustering pattern of the genotypes revealed that the genotypes under cluster 2 and cluster 6 were long statures, late maturing and produced higher seed yield. The genotype G00003 under cluster 2 is the best entry giving the highest seed yield. From cluster 6, the genotype G00209 could be the better choice for much better seed yield. The cluster 3 genotypes were comparatively early maturing and gave reasonable yield. It is concluded that the genotypes under clusters 2 and 6 and 3 can be important resources for developing a high yielding variety and sustainability of growing soybean in the subtropical conditions.