Ribosome-inactivating Protein Research Articles

Ribosome-inactivating Protein MAP30 Isolated from Momordica Charantia L. Induces Apoptosis in Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells.

Ribosome-inactivating proteins (RIPs) have been reported to exert antitumor and anti-virus activities. A recent patent CN202011568116.7 has developed a new method to prepare Momordica anti-HIV protein of 30 kDa (MAP30). MAP30 is a type I RIP, which kills various tumor cells through the N-glycosidase activity and irreversibly inhibits protein synthesis. To assess the potential role of MAP30 in inducing apoptosis of human hepatocellular carcinoma HCC-LM3 cells and elucidate the molecular mechanism of MAP30. CCK-8 assay was used to assess the proliferation of HCC-LM3 cells. Flow cytometry was used to measure the cycle, the level of ROS and apoptosis in HCC-LM3 cells. Western blots was used to measure protein levels. Treatment with MAP30 reduced survival and proliferation of human liver cancer HCCLM3 cells in a dose-dependent manner. PI staining showed cell cycle arrest in G0/G1 phase. Furthermore, MAP30 increased the level of ROS in HCC-LM3 cells in 24 h treatment. To further confirm the role of MAP30 in inducing cell apoptosis, immunoblotting was carried out to detect the change of apoptosis-related proteins including PARP poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP- 1), Casepase3 and Cleaved-Caspase9. We found that PARP-1 and Caspase-3 were downregulated, whereas Cleaved-Caspase9 was up-regulated in HCC-LM3 cells treated with MAP30. This study indicated that MAP30 has the potential to be a novel therapeutic agent for human hepatocellular carcinoma.

A cleavable peptide adapter augments the activity of targeted toxins in combination with the glycosidic endosomal escape enhancer SO1861

BackgroundTreatment with tumor-targeted toxins attempts to overcome the disadvantages of conventional cancer therapies by directing a drug’s cytotoxic effect specifically towards cancer cells. However, success with targeted toxins has been hampered as the constructs commonly remain bound to the outside of the cell or, after receptor-mediated endocytosis, are either transported back to the cell surface or undergo degradation in lysosomes. Hence, solutions to ensure endosomal escape are an urgent need in treatment with targeted toxins. In this work, a molecular adapter that consists of a cell penetrating peptide and two cleavable peptides was inserted into a targeted toxin between the ribosome-inactivating protein dianthin and the epidermal growth factor. Applying cell viability assays, this study examined whether the addition of the adapter further augments the endosomal escape enhancement of the glycosylated triterpenoid SO1861, which has shown up to more than 1000-fold enhancement in the past.ResultsIntroducing the peptide adapter into the targeted toxin led to an about 12-fold enhancement in the cytotoxicity on target cells while SO1861 caused a 430-fold increase. However, the combination of adapter and glycosylated triterpenoid resulted in a more than 4300-fold enhancement and in addition to a 51-fold gain in specificity.ConclusionsOur results demonstrated that the cleavable peptide augments the endosomal escape mediated by glycosylated triterpenoids while maintaining specificity. Thus, the adapter is a promising addition to glycosylated triterpenoids to further increase the efficacy and therapeutic window of targeted toxins.

Antifungal Activity of Ribosome-Inactivating Proteins

The control of crop diseases caused by fungi remains a major problem and there is a need to find effective fungicides that are environmentally friendly. Plants are an excellent source for this purpose because they have developed defense mechanisms to cope with fungal infections. Among the plant proteins that play a role in defense are ribosome-inactivating proteins (RIPs), enzymes obtained mainly from angiosperms that, in addition to inactivating ribosomes, have been studied as antiviral, fungicidal, and insecticidal proteins. In this review, we summarize and discuss the potential use of RIPs (and other proteins with similar activity) as antifungal agents, with special emphasis on RIP/fungus specificity, possible mechanisms of antifungal action, and the use of RIP genes to obtain fungus-resistant transgenic plants. It also highlights the fact that these proteins also have antiviral and insecticidal activity, which makes them very versatile tools for crop protection.

Edodin: A New Type of Toxin from Shiitake Mushroom (Lentinula edodes) That Inactivates Mammalian Ribosomes.

Ribosome-inactivating proteins (RIPs) are a group of proteins with rRNA N-glycosylase activity that irreversibly inhibit protein synthesis and consequently cause cell death. Recently, an RIP called ledodin has been found in shiitake; it is cytotoxic, strongly inhibits protein synthesis, and shows rRNA N-glycosylase activity. In this work, we isolated and characterized a 50 kDa cytotoxic protein from shiitake that we named edodin. Edodin inhibits protein synthesis in a mammalian cell-free system, but not in insect-, yeast-, and bacteria-derived systems. It exhibits rRNA N-glycosylase and DNA-nicking activities, which relate it to plant RIPs. It was also shown to be toxic to HeLa and COLO 320 cells. Its structure is not related to other RIPs found in plants, bacteria, or fungi, but, instead, it presents the characteristic structure of the fold type I of pyridoxal phosphate-dependent enzymes. Homologous sequences have been found in other fungi of the class Agaricomycetes; thus, edodin could be a new type of toxin present in many fungi, some of them edible, which makes them of great interest in health, both for their involvement in food safety and for their potential biomedical and biotechnological applications.

Development and validation of streptavidin-biotin-based double antibody sandwich ELISA for ricin diagnosis

BackgroundRicin is a potential biowarfare agent. It is a phytotoxin isolated from castor seeds. At present there is no antidote available for ricin poisoning, patients only get supportive treatment based on their symptoms. This highlights the importance of early detection to avoid severity of accidents and reduce the risk factor. Considering this, our study aimed to develop a highly sensitive and specific sandwich ELISA for the detection of ricin. MethodsRicin was purified from castor seeds. Anti-ricin polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies were generated from rabbit antisera and hybridoma cell (1H6F1) supernatant using a protein A/G column. Antibody titer estimation was done using Indirect ELISA. A streptavidin–biotin-based sandwich ELISA was developed and the limit of detection (LOD), linear range, intra and inter-assay coefficient of variation (CV), and cross-reactivity with other similar toxins were determined. Interference of human plasma samples spiked with ricin was also checked. ResultsThe LOD of the ELISA was found to be 0.45 ng/ml, with a linear range of 0.90–62 ng/ml, intra and inter-assay CV ranged from 3.34 % to 5 % and 5.17 % to 10.80 % respectively. The assay was not cross-reactive with other similar ribosome-inactivating protein (RIP) toxins. Ricin was detected in spiked plasma samples. ConclusionThe developed assay is highly sensitive and specific for detecting ricin and is not cross-reactive with other similar types of toxins. The assay can detect ricin in spiked plasma samples, so it has the potential to be used for the analysis of clinical samples after ricin poisoning.

Identification and Biological Evaluation of a Novel Small-Molecule Inhibitor of Ricin Toxin.

The plant-derived toxin ricin is classified as a type 2 ribosome-inactivating protein (RIP) and currently lacks effective clinical antidotes. The toxicity of ricin is mainly due to its ricin toxin A chain (RTA), which has become an important target for drug development. Previous studies have identified two essential binding pockets in the active site of RTA, but most existing inhibitors only target one of these pockets. In this study, we used computer-aided virtual screening to identify a compound called RSMI-29, which potentially interacts with both active pockets of RTA. We found that RSMI-29 can directly bind to RTA and effectively attenuate protein synthesis inhibition and rRNA depurination induced by RTA or ricin, thereby inhibiting their cytotoxic effects on cells in vitro. Moreover, RSMI-29 significantly reduced ricin-mediated damage to the liver, spleen, intestine, and lungs in mice, demonstrating its detoxification effect against ricin in vivo. RSMI-29 also exhibited excellent drug-like properties, featuring a typical structural moiety of known sulfonamides and barbiturates. These findings suggest that RSMI-29 is a novel small-molecule inhibitor that specifically targets ricin toxin A chain, providing a potential therapeutic option for ricin intoxication.

Synthesis of biologically active Shiga toxins in cell-free systems

Shiga toxins (Stx) produced by pathogenic bacteria can cause mild to severe diseases in humans. Thus, the analysis of such toxins is of utmost importance. As an AB5 toxin, Stx consist of a catalytic A-subunit acting as a ribosome-inactivating protein (RIP) and a B-pentamer binding domain. In this study we synthesized the subunits and holotoxins from Stx and Stx2a using different cell-free systems, namely an E. coli- and CHO-based cell-free protein synthesis (CFPS) system. The functional activity of the protein toxins was analyzed in two ways. First, activity of the A-subunits was assessed using an in vitro protein inhibition assay. StxA produced in an E. coli cell-free system showed significant RIP activity at concentrations of 0.02 nM, whereas toxins synthesized in a CHO cell-free system revealed significant activity at concentrations of 0.2 nM. Cell-free synthesized StxA2a was compared to StxA2a expressed in E. coli cells. Cell-based StxA2a had to be added at concentrations of 20 to 200 nM to yield a significant RIP activity. Furthermore, holotoxin analysis on cultured HeLa cells using an O-propargyl-puromycin assay showed significant protein translation reduction at concentrations of 10 nM and 5 nM for cell-free synthesized toxins derived from E. coli and CHO systems, respectively. Overall, these results show that Stx can be synthesized using different cell-free systems while remaining functionally active. In addition, we were able to use CFPS to assess the activity of different Stx variants which can further be used for RIPs in general.

Biocontrol Potential of Sodin 5, Type 1 Ribosome-Inactivating Protein from Salsola soda L. Seeds.

Sodin 5 is a type 1 ribosome-inactivating protein isolated from the seeds of Salsola soda L., an edible halophytic plant that is widespread in southern Europe, close to the coast. This plant, known as 'agretti', is under consideration as a new potential crop on saline soils. Considering a possible defence role of sodin 5 in the plant, we report here its antifungal activity against different halophilic and halotolerant fungi. Our results show that sodin 5 at a concentration of 40 µg/mL (1.4 µM) was able to inhibit the growth of the fungi Trimmatostromma salinum (35.3%), Candida parapsilosis (24.4%), Rhodotorula mucilaginosa (18.2%), Aspergillus flavus (12.2%), and Aureobasidium melanogenum (9.1%). The inhibition observed after 72 h was concentration-dependent. On the other hand, very slight growth inhibition was observed in the fungus Hortaea werneckii (4.2%), which commonly inhabits salterns. In addition, sodin 5 showed a cytotoxic effect on the Sf9 insect cell line, decreasing the survival of these cells to 63% at 1.0 µg/mL (34.5 nM). Structural analysis of sodin 5 revealed that its N-terminal amino acid residue is blocked. Using mass spectrometry, sodin 5 was identified as a homologous to type 1 polynucleotide:adenosine glycosylases, commonly known as ribosome-inactivating proteins from the Amaranthaceae family. Twenty-three percent of its primary structure was determined, including the catalytic site.

Structure-Function Analysis of the A1 Subunit of Shiga Toxin 2 with Peptides That Target the P-Stalk Binding Site and Inhibit Activity.

Shiga toxin 2a (Stx2a) is the virulence factor of Escherichia coli (STEC), which is associated with hemolytic uremic syndrome, the leading cause of pediatric kidney failure. The A1 subunit of Stx2a (Stx2A1) binds to the conserved C-terminal domain (CTD) of the ribosomal P-stalk proteins to remove an adenine from the sarcin-ricin loop (SRL) in the 28S rRNA, inhibiting protein synthesis. There are no antidotes against Stx2a or any other ribosome-inactivating protein (RIP). The structural and functional details of the binding of Stx2A1 to the P-stalk CTD are not known. Here, we carry out a deletion analysis of the conserved P-stalk CTD and show that the last eight amino acids (P8) of the P-stalk proteins are the minimal sequence required for optimal affinity and maximal inhibitory activity against Stx2A1. We determined the first X-ray crystal structure of Stx2A1 alone and in complex with P8 and identified the exact binding site. The C-terminal aspartic acid of the P-stalk CTD serves as an anchor, forming key contacts with the conserved arginine residues at the P-stalk binding pocket of Stx2A1. Although the ricin A subunit (RTA) binds to the P-stalk CTD, the last aspartic acid is more critical for the interaction with Stx2A1, indicating that RIPs differ in their requirements for the P-stalk. These results demonstrate that the catalytic activity of Stx2A1 is inhibited by blocking its interactions with the P-stalk, providing evidence that P-stalk binding is an essential first step in the recruitment of Stx2A1 to the SRL for depurination.

Hortensins, Type 1 Ribosome-Inactivating Proteins from Seeds of Red Mountain Spinach: Isolation, Characterization, and Their Effect on Glioblastoma Cells.

Ribosome inactivating proteins (RIPs) are specific N-β-glycosylases that are well-characterized in plants. Their enzymatic action is to damage ribosomes, thereby blocking protein translation. Recently, several research groups have been working on the screening for these toxins in edible plants to facilitate the use of RIPs as biotechnological tools and biopesticides and to overcome public prejudice. Here, four novel monomeric (type 1) RIPs have been isolated from the seeds of Atriplex hortensis L. var. rubra, which is commonly known as edible red mountain spinach. These enzymes, named hortensins 1, 2, 4, and 5, are able to release the β-fragment and, like many other RIPs, adenines from salmon sperm DNA, thus, acting as polynucleotide:adenosine glycosidases. Structurally, hortensins have a different molecular weight and are purified with different yields (hortensin 1, ~29.5 kDa, 0.28 mg per 100 g; hortensin 2, ~29 kDa, 0.29 mg per 100 g; hortensin 4, ~28.5 kDa, 0.71 mg per 100 g; and hortensin 5, ~30 kDa, 0.65 mg per 100 g); only hortensins 2 and 4 are glycosylated. Furthermore, the major isoforms (hortensins 4 and 5) are cytotoxic toward human continuous glioblastoma U87MG cell line. In addition, the morphological change in U87MG cells in the presence of these toxins is indicative of cell death triggered by the apoptotic pathway, as revealed by nuclear DNA fragmentation (TUNEL assay).

Genotoxicity Assessment of Quinoin, a Ribosome Inactivating Protein from Quinoa Seeds, in the Teleost Danio rerio.

Ribosome inactivating proteins (RIPs) are N-glycosylases found in various plants that are able to specifically and irreversibly inhibit protein translation, thereby leading to cell death. Their cytotoxic properties have attracted attention in the medical field in the context of developing new anticancer therapies. Quinoin is a novel toxic enzyme obtained from quinoa seeds and classified as a type 1 RIP (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.). Recently, quinoin was found to be cytotoxic to normal fibroblasts and keratinocytes in vitro, as well as to several tumor cell lines. The aim of this study was to evaluate the in vitro and in vivo genotoxicity of quinoin in a zebrafish model. We evaluated its ability to induce DNA fragmentation, genomic instability, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation by means of terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) reaction, randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) technique, and dichlorofluorescine (DCF) assay, respectively. Quinoin was found to cause genomic damage in zebrafish, as shown by DNA fragmentation, polymorphic variations leading to genomic instability, and oxidative stress. Interestingly, longer quinoin treatment caused less damage than shorter treatments. This study demonstrated ROS-mediated genotoxicity of quinoin toward the zebrafish genome. The reduced damage observed after longer quinoin treatment could indicate the activation of detoxification mechanisms, activation of repair mechanisms, or the loss of protein activity due to enzymatic digestion. In order to clarify the genotoxic actions of quinoin, further investigations of the response pathways to DNA damage are needed. Overall, the ability of quinoin to cause breaks and instability in DNA, together with its clear cytotoxicity, make it an interesting candidate for the development of new drugs for cancer treatment.

In vitro and in vivo anti-tumor effect of Trichobakin fused with urokinase-type plasminogen activator ATF-TBK.

Trichobakin (TBK), a member of type I ribosome-inactivating proteins (RIPs), was first successfully cloned from Trichosanthes sp Bac Kan 8-98 in Vietnam. Previous study has shown that TBK acts as a potential protein synthesis inhibitor; however, the inhibition efficiency and specificity of TBK on cancer cells remain to be fully elucidated. In this work, we employed TBK and TBK conjugated with a part of the amino-terminal fragment (ATF) of the urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA), which contains the Ω-loop that primarily interacts with urokinase-type plasminogen activator receptor, and can be a powerful carrier in the drug delivery to cancer cells. Four different human tumor cell lines and BALB/c mice bearing Lewis lung carcinoma cells (LLC) were used to evaluate the role of TBK and ATF-TBK in the inhibition of tumor growth. Here we showed that the obtained ligand fused RIP (ATF-TBK) reduced the growth of four human cancer cell lines in vitro in the uPA receptor level-dependent manner, including the breast adenocarcinoma MDA-MB 231 cells and MCF7 cells, the prostate carcinoma LNCaP cells and the hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 cells. Furthermore, the conjugate showed anti-tumor activity and prolonged the survival time of tumor-bearing mice. The ATF-TBK also did not cause the death of mice with doses up to 48mg/kg, and they were not significantly distinct on parameters of hematology and serum biochemistry between the control and experiment groups. In conclusion, ATF-TBK reduced the growth of four different human tumor cell lines and inhibited lung tumor growth in a mouse model with little side effects. Hence, the ATF-TBK may be a target to consider as an anti-cancer agent for clinical trials.

A bioinspired pseudopeptide-based intracellular delivery platform enhances the cytotoxicity of a ribosome-inactivating protein through multiple death pathways.

Saporin is a 28 621 Da protein and plant toxin possessing rRNA N-glycosidase activity. Due to its potent ribosome-inactivating ability, saporin is commonly studied as an anticancer agent. However, its enzymatic activity is greatly hindered by its poor plasma membrane permeability. To overcome this barrier, we used a bioinspired intracellular delivery platform based on the pH-responsive pseudopeptide, poly(L-lysine isophthalamide) grafted with L-phenylalanine at a stoichiometric molar percentage of 50% (PP50). PP50 was co-incubated with saporin (PP50/saporin) in a mildly acidic pH environment to aid intracellular delivery and increase saporin's therapeutic potential. We demonstrated that PP50 greatly enhanced the cytotoxicity of saporin in the 2D monolayer of A549 cells and 3D A549 multicellular spheroids whilst remaining non-toxic when administered alone. To elucidate the mechanism of cell death, we assessed the activation of caspases, the inhibition of protein synthesis, the onset of apoptosis and the mechanism of PP50/saporin entry. Inhibition of protein synthesis and activation of caspases 3/7, 8 and 9 were found to occur before the onset of apoptosis and cell death. PP50/saporin was also shown to rely on micropinocytosis and caveolae-mediated endocytosis for cell entry. In addition, fluorescein isothiocyanate-labelled saporin (FITC-saporin) was localized within the cytoplasm and nuclei when delivered with Cyanine5-labelled PP50 (Cy5-PP50). Taken together, this suggests that multiple pathways are triggered to initiate apoptosis and cell death in cells treated with PP50/saporin. Therefore, these results make PP50 a potential intracellular delivery platform for the internalization of protein therapeutics.

Effecting of Ribosomal-Inactivating Proteins on Gene Expression of Cdr2 Gene in Pathogenic Candida Albicans Isolates

Effecting of Ribosomal-Inactivating Proteins on Gene Expression of Cdr2 Gene in Pathogenic Candida Albicans Isolates

Heterophyllin: A New Adenia Toxic Lectin with Peculiar Biological Properties.

Ribosome-inactivating proteins (RIPs) are plant toxins that were identified for their ability to irreversibly damage ribosomes, thereby causing arrest of protein synthesis and induction of cell death. The RIPs purified from Adenia plants are the most potent ones. Here, we describe a novel toxic lectin from Adenia heterophylla caudex, which has been named heterophyllin. Heterophyllin shows the enzymatic and lectin properties of type 2 RIPs. Interestingly, in immunoreactivity experiments, heterophyllin poorly cross-reacts with sera against all other tested RIPs. The cytotoxic effects and death pathways triggered by heterophyllin were investigated in three human-derived cell lines: NB100, T24, and MCF7, and compared to ricin, the most known and studied type 2 RIP. Heterophyllin was able to completely abolish cell viability at nM concentration. A strong induction of apoptosis, but not necrosis, and the involvement of oxidative stress and necroptosis were observed in all the tested cell lines. Therefore, the enzymatic, immunological, and biological activities of heterophyllin make it an interesting molecule, worthy of further in-depth analysis to verify its possible pharmacological application.

Abstract B105: Antineoplastic effects and expression modulations in proliferation/apoptosis related genes by riproximin in breast cancer cells

Abstract Background: Ribosomal inactivating proteins (RIPs) target the ribosomal machinery of target cells and stop the translational machinery irreversibly. Riproximin is a plant-based RIP which was extracted and purified from the plant “Ximenia americana”. Riproximin has demonstrated its anticancer effects against various in vitro and in vivo cancer models. In this study, the focus was to evaluate the effects of riproximin on proliferation and apoptosis of breast cancer cells at functional and molecular levels. Methods: MTT dye reduction assay and DAPI nuclear staining methodologies were used to highlight the riproximin mediated effects on proliferation and apoptosis in primary (MCF-7) and metastatic (MDA-MB-231) breast cancer cell lines. Afterwards, the two cell lines were used to investigate the expression modulations in genes related to PIK3/Akt and apoptosis pathways (84 genes/pathway) via real-time PCR methodology. The expression modulations were used to build the signalling pathways via Ingenuity Pathway Analysis supported by Qiagen software system. Results: Riproximin successfully halted the proliferation of the breast cancer cells with an average 50% inhibitory concentrations of 1.2 and 2.9 ng/ml after 72 hours exposure interval in MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells, respectively. The protein also induced apoptotic effects in the two cell lines as reflected by shrinkage, blebbing and fragmentation of the nucleus/DNA content in a concentration dependant format. Substantial alterations (≥2fold) were observed in PIK3/Akt pathway genes (MCF-7: 49/84, MDA-MB-231: 28/84) in response to riproximin exposure. Similarly, the protein induced de-regulation (≥2fold) of apoptosis related 44/84 and 34/84 genes in MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cell lines, respectively. The Ingenuity Pathway Analysis revealed involvement of these genes at distinct positions in cell survival and death mechanisms. Conclusion: Riproximin demonstrated the substantial potential to induce the cytotoxic effects in breast cancer cells. The protein also de-regulated a significant number of proliferation and apoptosis related genes in breast cancer primary and metastatic cells. Further in vitro investigations are required to understand the fine molecular tuning being operated by this natural plant protein in cancer cells. Citation Format: Asim Pervaiz, Asma Khan, Kiran Umer, Martin R. Berger. Antineoplastic effects and expression modulations in proliferation/apoptosis related genes by riproximin in breast cancer cells [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the AACR-NCI-EORTC Virtual International Conference on Molecular Targets and Cancer Therapeutics; 2023 Oct 11-15; Boston, MA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Mol Cancer Ther 2023;22(12 Suppl):Abstract nr B105.

Ribosomal stalk-captured CARF-RelE ribonuclease inhibits translation following CRISPR signaling.

Prokaryotic type III CRISPR-Cas antiviral systems employ cyclic oligoadenylate (cAn) signaling to activate a diverse range of auxiliary proteins that reinforce the CRISPR-Cas defense. Here we characterize a class of cAn-dependent effector proteins named CRISPR-Cas-associated messenger RNA (mRNA) interferase 1 (Cami1) consisting of a CRISPR-associated Rossmann fold sensor domain fused to winged helix-turn-helix and a RelE-family mRNA interferase domain. Upon activation by cyclic tetra-adenylate (cA4), Cami1 cleaves mRNA exposed at the ribosomal A-site thereby depleting mRNA and leading to cell growth arrest. The structures of apo-Cami1 and the ribosome-bound Cami1-cA4 complex delineate the conformational changes that lead to Cami1 activation and the mechanism of Cami1 binding to a bacterial ribosome, revealing unexpected parallels with eukaryotic ribosome-inactivating proteins.

RIBOSOME-INACTIVATED PROTEINS (RIPS) OF THE BLACK ELDER SAMBUCUS NIGRA

The aim of this work is to study the composition of ribosome-inactivating proteins from the bark and berries of the black elderberry Sambucus nigra L., growing on the territory of the Republic of Uzbekistan.
 The composition of ribosome-inactivating proteins in the bark and berries of black elder Sambucus nigra L., collected in the Botanical Garden of the Republic of Uzbekistan, was studied. According to HPLC-MS/MS sequencing, the bark sample revealed the presence of 9 RIP-2. Based on the obtained amino acid sequences using the CLUSTAL O (1.2.4) program, the amino acid sequence of the identified type 2 RIPs was compared and similar and conserved residues were identified, which will further help identify new RIPs. In the course of the studies, the tryptic peptide LSLVVLQMVSEAAR containing the RIP active site motif (EAAR) was identified with a high degree of probability. Mass spectral data on this fragment will allow further identification of other RIP-1/2 from other samples of natural origin.
 2 RIPs were isolated from berries, one of which is in a reduced form containing one chain. Establishing the amino acid sequence in the isolated RIP from black elderberries with a molecular mass of 62337 Da confirmed our hypothesis of identification by the tryptic peptide containing the RIP active center (EAAR).

Mitigation of Anti-Drug Antibody Production for Augmenting Anticancer Efficacy of Therapeutic Protein via Co-Injection of Nano-Rapamycin.

The induction of anti-drug antibody (ADA) is a formidable challenge for protein-based therapy. Trichosanthin (TCS) as a class of ribosome-inactivating proteins is widely studied in tumor treatment. However, the immunogenicity can induce the formation of ADA, which can cause hypersensitivity reactions and neutralize the efficacy of TCS, thus limiting its clinical application in cancer therapy. Here, a promising solution to this issueis presented by co-administration of the rapamycin nanoparticles and TCS. PEGylated rapamycin amphiphilic moleculeis designed and synthesized as a prodrug and a delivery carrier, which can self-assemble into a nanoparticle system with encapsulation of free rapamycin, a hydrophobic drug. Itis found that co-injection of the PEGylated rapamycin nanoparticles and TCS could mitigate the formation of anti-TCS antibody via inducing durable immunological tolerance. Importantly, the combination of TCS and the rapamycin nanoparticleshas an enhanced effect on inhibit the growth of breast cancer. This work provides a promising approach for protein toxin-based anticancer therapy and for promoting the clinical translation.

Correction to Isolation of Ribosome-Inactivating Proteins from Seeds of Nigella sativa

Correction to Isolation of Ribosome-Inactivating Proteins from Seeds of Nigella sativa