Rhyolitic Ignimbrites Research Articles

Rhyolites associated to Ethiopian CFB: Clues for initial rifting at the Afar plume axis

A comprehensive tectono-magmatic model based on new geochemical and field data is discussed in order to highlight the significance of the high-TiO 2 bimodal picrite basalt/rhyolite association in the north-eastern sector of the Ethiopian Plateau, which is considered to be the axial zone of the 30 Ma Continental Flood Basalt activity related to the Afar plume (Beccaluva et al., 2009). In this area the volcanic sequence consists of approximately 1700 m of high TiO 2 (4–6.5%) picrite basalts, covered by rhyolitic ignimbrites and lavas, with an average thickness of 300 m, which discontinuously extend over an area of nearly 13,500 km 2 (ca. 3600 km 3). Petrogenetic modelling, using rock and mineral chemical data and phase equilibria calculations by PELE and MELTS, indicates that: 1) picrite basalts could generate rhyolitic, sometimes peralkaline, residual melts with persistently high titanium contents (TiO 2 0.4–1.1%; Fluorine 0.2–0.3%; H 2O 2–3%; density ca. 2.4) corresponding to liquid fractions 9–16%; 2) closed system fractional crystallisation processes developed at 0.1–0.3 GPa pressure and 1390–750 °C temperature ranges, under QFM fO 2 conditions; 3) the highest crystallisation rate – involving 10–13% of Fe–Ti oxide removal – in the temperature range 1070–950 °C, represents a transitory (short-lived) fractionation stage, which results in the absence of erupted silica intermediate products (Daly gap). The eruption of low aspect ratio fluorine-rich rhyolitic ignimbrites and lavas capping the basic volcanics implies a rapid change from open- to closed-system tectono-magmatic conditions, which favoured the trapping of parental picrite basalts and their fractionation in upwardly zoned magma chambers. This evolution resulted from the onset of continental rifting, which was accompanied by normal faulting and block tilting, and the formation of shallow – N–S elongated – fissural chambers parallel to the future Afar Escarpment. The eruption of large volumes of rhyolitic magmas generated from underlying picrite basalts appears to be a common geological process acting in most plume-related LIP, which in turn is related to the inversion of the stress regime from regional extension lithosphere doming to localised continental rifting.

Complex storage of rhyolite in the central Snake River Plain

Analysis of hundreds of co-existing individual clinopyroxene crystals and crystal aggregates from rhyolitic ignimbrites of the central Snake River Plain has revealed that magma storage prior to eruption was complex. Crystal aggregates are dominated by plagioclase, augite, pigeonite, ilmenite, magnetite and zircon, and commonly lack sanidine and quartz which may be present as single crystals. In the ignimbrites, multiple compositions of pigeonite and augite may occur as single crystals, yet within the crystal aggregates, only single compositions of augite and pigeonite are recorded. Multiple crystal aggregates may be present within a deposit containing the whole spectrum of clinopyroxene compositions within the unit, yet only one pair of clinopyroxene compositions occur in a single aggregate. Evidence of compositional zonation is rare to absent both throughout the deposit as a whole and within individual pyroxene grains. The restricted compositions of the crystal aggregates are interpreted as reflecting a magmatic system in which the magma was physically segregated into a number of separate bodies evolving in parallel prior to eruption. One case was recorded whereby the composition of a crystal aggregate did not agree with the compositions of single crystals in that ignimbrite. This aggregate represents a silicic magma not currently recognised in surface outcrops and reflects entrainment of surrounding crystal mush. Although multiple compositions of pigeonite and augite appear to be present only in ignimbrites, no relationship exists between the volume of erupted material and the number of clinopyroxene compositions present within the deposit.

Geochemical correlation of three large-volume ignimbrites from the Yellowstone hotspot track, Idaho, USA

Three voluminous rhyolitic ignimbrites have been identified along the southern margin of the central Snake River Plain. As a result of wide-scale correlations, new volume estimates can be made for these deposits: ~350 km3 for the Steer Basin Tuff and Cougar Point Tuff XI, and ~1,000 km3 for Cougar Point Tuff XIII. These volumes exclude any associated regional ashfalls and correlation across to the north side of the plain, which has yet to be attempted. Each correlation was achieved using a combination of methods including field logging, whole rock and mineral chemistry, magnetic polarity, oxygen isotope signature and high-precision 40Ar/39Ar geochronology. The Steer Basin Tuff, Cougar Point Tuff XI and Cougar Point Tuff XIII have deposit characteristics typical of ‘Snake River (SR)-type’ volcanism: they are very dense, intensely welded and rheomorphic, unusually well sorted with scarce pumice and lithic lapilli. These features differ significantly from those of deposits from the better-known younger eruptions of Yellowstone. The ignimbrites also exhibit marked depletion in δ18O, which is known to characterise the SR-type rhyolites of the central Snake River Plain, and cumulatively represent ~1,700 km3 of low δ18O rhyolitic magma (feldspar values 2.3–2.9‰) erupted within 800,000 years. Our work reduces the total number of ignimbrites recognised in the central Snake River Plain by 6, improves the link with the ashfall record of Yellowstone hotspot volcanism and suggests that more large-volume ignimbrites await discovery through detailed correlation work amidst the vast ignimbrite record of volcanism in this bimodal large igneous province.

Erratum to: S-type ignimbrites with polybaric crystallisation histories: the Tolmie Igneous Complex, Central Victoria, Australia

The Late Devonian Tolmie Igneous Complex (in north-eastern Victoria, Australia) contains S-type, intracaldera, rhyolitic ignimbrites with multiple generations of phenocrysts of biotite, garnet, cordierite and orthopyroxene; one unit also contains fayalitic olivine. Geothermometry and calculated phase relations indicate high-T deep- to mid-crustal origins for the magmas, with crystallisation at several levels. At least four separate magma groups make up the complex. Compositional variations within and between ignimbrites are adequately modelled by selective entrainment of peritectic garnet, ilmenite, orthopyroxene and plagioclase into the magmas. Neither crystal fractionation nor mafic-felsic magma mixing played a role. Chemical and isotope data suggest that the magma sources were once variably Ba-enriched arc greywackes with different proportions of clay. The deep origin of some of the Tolmie Complex magmas means that supracrustal rocks underlie parts of north-eastern Victoria at depths of around 35 km. This has important implications for understanding the region’s tectonic development.

Tectono-magmatic response to major convergence changes in the North Patagonian suprasubduction system; the Paleogene subduction–transcurrent plate margin transition

The southern and central Andes reflect significant along-strike differences of tectonic activity, including shortening, alternating flat-to-normal subduction styles and magmatism. In northern Patagonia, the subduction/supra-subduction system, fore arc, arc and back arc basins developed in an extensional setting during the Paleogene. This was accompanied by landward migration of calc-alkalic magmatism which changed to synextensional bimodal volcanism of rhyolitic ignimbrites and interbedded tholeiitic and alkalic basalts. These Paleogene events occurred during a time when the Farallon–Aluk active ridge reached the South American plate, and the Farallon plate subduction was interrupted. They represent a new tectonic regime, characterized by a transcurrent plate margin. The presence in the back arc of a rigid lithospheric block of 100,000 km 2 represented by the North Patagonian Massif focused the rotation of the coastal blocks. This resulted in the development of two Paleogene extensional regions to the north and south, respectively, of the Massif and replaced the former back arc. Plate rearrangement caused by the inauguration of the Nazca plate and its regime of orthogonal subduction at the beginning of the Miocene, re-established typical calc-alkaline arc magmatism at the former upper Cretaceous arc locus. Present seismic activity in the subducted plate and tomographic modeling of p-wave velocity anomalies in the upper mantle also suggest the presence of a subduction gap that lasted for most of the Paleogene in northern Patagonia.

The Sarkhoi Group in East Sayan: Neoproterozoic (∼770–800 Ma) volcanic belt of the Andean type

The Sarkhoi Group localized in the stratotype area is composed of various volcanics and volcanoclastics more than 4 km in total thickness. The volcanics of the lower part are greenschist facies altered rocks ranging from basalt to dacite, and those of the upper part are mainly rhyolitic ignimbrites. The composition, sequence, and facial features of these volcanics show their affinity to the active continental margin. This is confirmed by geochemical data evidencing the participation of the Early Precambrian continental crust in their formation. The U-Pb zircon dating (SHRIMP) of the Sarkhoi volcanics yielded the Neoproterozoic age of the ignimbrites (782 ± 11 Ma, concordant cluster N = 8). The tonalite-trondhjemites of the Sumsunur complex in the Gargan block are plutonic analogs of these volcanic rocks. Coeval granitoids were also revealed in other parts of the Tuva–Mongolian and Dzavhan massifs. The ∼1500 km long Sarkhoi–Dzavhan volcanic belt is a fragment of the Neoproterozoic active continental margin separated from the continent. In the Middle Neoproterozoic, the geodynamic system also included the Oka accretionary prism joining the Sarkhoi continental margin and the Shishkhid island arc. Coeval analogs of the above structures are also reconstructed in the Yenisei Range and Baikal–Muya belt. This suggests that the Sarkhoi belt was initially localized along the margin of the Neoproterozoic Siberian continent. But the exotic origin of the Precambrian massifs in southern Siberia is not ruled out either.

Stratigraphy, geochronology, and geochemistry of the Laramide magmatic arc in north-central Sonora, Mexico

The Laramide magmatic arc in the Arizpe-Mazocahui quadrangle of north-central Sonora, Mexico, is composed of volcanic rocks assigned to the Tarahumara Formation and several granitic plutons that intrude it. The arc was built over juxtaposed crustal basements of the Caborca and Mazatzal provinces. A basal conglomerate of the >4-km-thick Tarahumara Formation overlies deformed Proterozoic igneous rocks and Neoproterozoic to Early Cretaceous strata, thus constraining the age of a contractional tectonic event that occurred between Cenomanian and early Campanian time. The lower part of the Tarahumara Formation is composed of rhyolitic ignimbrite and ash-fall tuffs, andesite flows, and interbedded volcaniclastic strata, and its upper part consists of rhyolitic to dacitic ignimbrites, ash-fall tuffs, and volcaniclastic rocks. The Tarahumara Formation shows marked lateral facies change within the study area, and further to the north it grades into the coeval fluvial and lacustrine Cabullona Group. The age of the Tarahumara Formation is between ca. 79 and 59 Ma; the monzonitic to granitic plutons have ages of ca. 71–50 Ma. The informally named El Babizo and Huépac granites, La Aurora and La Alamedita tonalities, and the Puerta del Sol granodiorite compose the El Jaralito batholith in the southern part of the area.

Emplacement and rheomorphic deformation of a large, lava-like rhyolitic ignimbrite: Grey's Landing, southern Idaho

The Miocene Grey9s Landing ignimbrite reaches 70 m thick and covers at least 400 km 2 in the central region of the Snake River Plain. It shows particularly intense welding and rheomorphic deformation, and although parts are eutaxitic, most is lava-like with flow-banding and no fiamme. A near-ubiquitous penetrative flow lamination, associated with a well-developed elongation lineation, is folded into small intrafolial tight to isoclinal oblique and sheath folds, which are refolded by larger folds in the upper parts. Structural and kinematic analysis reveals that welding and early deformation occurred rapidly during deposition from a very hot (≤1000 °C), high-mass-flux pyroclastic density current that flowed westward across a graben-faulted landscape. As hot particles were deposited, they rapidly agglutinated and coalesced, and underwent noncoaxial shear in a subhorizontal ductile shear zone close to the current-deposit interface. The shear zone is interpreted to have been less than 2 m thick. It produced and deformed the rheomorphic fabric, and it migrated upward with the rising current-deposit interface during aggradation, so that it transiently affected all levels of the resultant thick ignimbrite. Deformation was progressive, and after the density current had dissipated, viscous spreading and downslope flow continued and involved an increasingly thick portion of the sheet. This folded the flow banding and F 1 intrafolial isoclines into larger sheath folds, and into more upright periclines near the top of the ignimbrite. We demonstrate that structural and kinematic analysis can elucidate the emplacement history of rheomorphic ignimbrites.

Silicic phreatomagmatism in the Snake River Plain: the Deadeye Member

Non-welded rhyolitic pyroclastic units in the central Snake River Plain are interbedded with the much better exposed, large-volume ‘Snake-River type’ rheomorphic welded rhyolitic ignimbrites and rhyolite lavas. We document one such unit to investigate why it is so different from the interbedded welded ignimbrites. The newly recognised Deadeye Member of southern Idaho is a soil-bounded eruption-unit that comprises ashfall layers and a 4-m-thick ignimbrite that extends for >35 km. The ignimbrite is non-welded, lithic-clast poor and varies from massive to diffuse low-angle cross-bedded. It contains abundant angular clasts of non-vesicular black glass, and upper parts contain accretionary lapilli. The ashfall layers above it contain coated ash pellets and ash clumps, which record moist aggregation of fine ash. The magmas of the Deadeye eruption were closely similar in composition and temperature to those that generated the intensely welded rheomorphic ignimbrites of the central Snake River Plain. We infer that the marked contrast in physical appearance of the Deadeye ignimbrite compared to the other, more typical Snake-River-type welded ignimbrites was the result of emplacement at relatively low temperatures during an eruption in a lacustrine environment. Magmatic volatile-driven fragmentation of the rhyolitic magma was influenced by interaction with lake water that also led to cooling. The Deadeye Member is the first-recorded example of explosive silicic phreatomagmatism in the central Snake River Plain.

30 million years of Permian volcanism recorded in the Choiyoi igneous province (W Argentina) and their source for younger ash fall deposits in the Paraná Basin: SHRIMP U–Pb zircon geochronology evidence

We present four SHRIMP U–Pb zircon ages for the Choiyoi igneous province from the San Rafael Block, central–western Argentina. Dated samples come from the Yacimiento Los Reyunos Formation (281.4 ± 2.5 Ma) of the Cochicó Group (Lower Choiyoi section: andesitic breccias, dacitic to rhyolitic ignimbrites and continental conglomerates), Agua de los Burros Formation (264.8 ± 2.3 Ma and 264.5 ± 3.0 Ma) and Cerro Carrizalito Formation (251.9 ± 2.7 Ma Upper Choiyoi section: rhyolitic ignimbrites and pyroclastic flows) spanning the entire Permian succession of the Choiyoi igneous province. A single zircon from the El Imperial Formation, that is overlain unconformably by the Choiyoi succession, yielded an early Permian age (297.2 ± 5.3 Ma), while the main detrital zircon population indicated an Ordovician age (453.7 ± 8.1 Ma). The new data establishes a more precise Permian age (Artinskian–Lopingian) for the section studied spanning 30 Ma of volcanic activity. Volcanological observations for the Choiyoi succession support the occurrence of explosive eruptions of plinian to ultraplinian magnitudes, capable of injecting enormous volumes of tephra in the troposphere–stratosphere. The new SHRIMP ages indicate contemporaneity between the Choyoi succession and the upper part of the Paraná Basin late Paleozoic section, from the Irati up to the Rio do Rasto formations, encompassing about 24 Ma. Geochemical data show a general congruence in compositional and tectonic settings between the volcanics and Paraná Basin Permian ash fall derived layers of bentonites. Thickness and granulometry of ash fall layers broadly fit into the depletion curve versus distance from the remote source vent of ultraplinian eruptions. Thus, we consider that the Choiyoi igneous province was the source of ash fall deposits in the upper Permian section of the Paraná Basin. Data presented here allow a more consistent correlation between tectono-volcanic Permian events along the paleo-Pacific margin of southwestern Gondwana and the geological evolution of neighboring Paleozoic foreland basins in South America and Africa.

Conditions of the formation of gold spheroidal nanoparticles

Nanosized spheroidal gold particles are most abundant in deposits of the volcanogenic type among the studied gold-silver deposits of the Far East. Among volcanogenic deposits, spheroidal particles of electrum (Au and Ag) are the most abundant in the May deposit, Primor'e. The geological setting of the May gold-silver deposit is controlled by its location in the southeastern part of the Dal'negorsk volcanotectonic basin on the boundary with the Monomakh uplift within the East� ern SikhoteAlin volcanic belt. Orebearing rocks of the May deposit are presented by volcanogenic and volcanogenic-sedimentary acid formations of the Petrozuev Unit (Senomanian); upward through the section they are replaced by for� mations of the Primorsk Unit (Turonian-Santonian) with similar composition and origin: rhyolitic ignim� brite, agglomerate rhyolitic tuff, tuff-conglomerate, and tufogene siltstone. Ten linear zones of cataclase composed of mineral� ized breccias of ignimbrite, rhyolitic tuff, and quartz were distinguished within the ore field. Silicification occurs by filling of free space between rock fragments, as well as metasomatic replacement. The May zone, located at the contact between volcanic cover and vol� canogenic-sedimentary deposits, has been studied well. The age of ore estimated by the Ar-Ar method for adular is 41 Ma. The composition of the May deposit ore was stud� ied for a sample of sulfide-quartz composition with a weight of 40 tons. The chemical composition of the ore is the follow� ing (wt %): SiO2 83.3, Al2O3 6.13, К2О 3.64, Fe2O3 3.64, Р 2 О 5 0.48, СаО 0.43, MnO 0.23; lesser concen� trations of titanium, sodium oxides, and other ele� ments were registered. Quartz (83-95%), adular (7-11%), chlorite, and sericite (2-5%) strongly dominate among nonmetal� liferous minerals. The total concentration of ore min� erals is 2-4%; they often comprise magnetite, pyrite, galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, and minerals of pre� cious elements (1).

The petrologic evolution and pre-eruptive conditions of the rhyolitic Kos Plateau Tuff (Aegean arc)

AbstractThe Kos Plateau Tuff is a large (>60 km3) and young (160 k.y.) calc-alkaline, high-SiO2 rhyolitic ignimbrite from the active Kos-Nisyros volcanic center in the Aegean arc (Greece). Combined textural, petrological and geochemical information suggest that (1) the system evolved dominantly by crystal fractionation from (mostly unerupted) more mafic parents, (2) the magma chamber grew over ≥ 250 000 years at shallow depth (∼1.5-2.5 kb) and was stored as a H2O-rich crystalline mush close to its solidus (∼670-750°C), (3) the eruption occurred after a reheating event triggered by the intrusion of hydrous mafic magma at the base of the rhyolitic mush. Rare banded pumices indicate that the mafic magma only mingled with a trivial portion of resident crystal-rich rhyolite; most of the mush was remobilized following partial melting of quartz and feldspars induced by advection of heat and volatiles from the underplated, hotter mafic influx.

Diverse lavas from closely spaced volcanoes drawing from a common parent: Emmons Lake Volcanic Center, Eastern Aleutian Arc

Emmons Lake Volcanic Center (ELVC) on the lower Alaskan Peninsula is one of the largest and most diverse volcanic centers in the Aleutian Arc. Since the Middle Pleistocene, eruption of ~ 350 km 3 of basalt through rhyolite has produced a 30 km, arc front chain of nested calderas and overlapping stratovolcanoes. ELVC has experienced as many as five major caldera-forming eruptions, the most recent, at ~ 27 ka, produced ~ 50 km 3 of rhyolitic ignimbrite and ash fall. These violent silicic events were interspersed with less energetic, but prodigious, outpourings of basalt through dacite. Holocene eruptions are mostly basaltic andesite to andesite and historically recorded activity includes over 40 eruptions within the last 200 yr, all from Pavlof volcano, the most active site in the Aleutian Arc. Geochemical and geophysical observations suggest that although all ELVC eruptions derive from a common clinopyroxene + spinel + plagioclase fractionating high-aluminum basalt parent in the lower crust, magma follows one of two closely spaced, but distinct paths to the surface. Under the eastern end of the chain, magma moves rapidly and cleanly through a relatively young (~ 28 ka), hydraulically connected dike plexus. Steady supply, short magma residence times, and limited interaction with crustal rocks preserve the geochemistry of deep crustal processes. Below the western part of the chain, magma moves haltingly through a long-lived (~ 500 ka) and complex intrusive column in which many generations of basaltic to andesitic melts have mingled and fractionated. Buoyant, silicic melts periodically separate from the lower parts of the column to feed voluminous eruptions of dacite and rhyolite. Mafic lavas record a complicated passage through cumulate zones and hydrous silicic residues as manifested by disequilibrium phenocryst textures, incompatible element enrichments, and decoupling of REEs and HFSEs ratios. Such features are absent in mafic lavas from the younger part of the chain, highlighting the importance of plumbing architecture and longevity in creating petrologic diversity. Supplemental Data include 156 major element (XRF) and 128 trace element (ICP-MS) whole-rock analyses, 23 new 40Ar/ 39Ar ages, a generalized geologic map with associated unit descriptions and field photographs, and photomicrographs of key petrographic features.

Age, geochemical composition, and distribution of Oligocene ignimbrites in the northern Sierra Nevada, California: implications for landscape morphology, elevation, and drainage divide geography of the Nevadaplano

To gain a better understanding of the topographic and landscape evolution of the Cenozoic Sierra Nevada and Basin and Range, we combine geochemical and isotopic age correlations with palaeoaltimetry data from widely distributed ignimbrites in the northern Sierra Nevada, California. A sequence of Oligocene rhyolitic ignimbrites is preserved across the modern crest of the range and into the western foothills. Using trace and rare earth element geochemical analyses of volcanic glass, these deposits have been correlated to ignimbrites described and isotopically dated in the Walker Lane fault zone and in central Nevada (Henry et al., 2004, Geologic map of the Dogskin mountain quadrangle; Washoe County, Nevada; Faulds et al., 2005, Geology, v. 33, p. 505–508). Ignimbrite deposits were sampled within the northern Sierra Nevada and western Nevada, and four distinct geochemical compositions were identified. The majority of samples from within the northern Sierra Nevada have compositions similar to the tuffs of Axehandle Canyon or Rattlesnake Canyon, both likely sourced from the same caldera complex in either the Clan Alpine Mountains or the Stillwater Range, or to the tuff of Campbell Creek, sourced from the Desatoya Mountains caldera. New 40Ar/39Ar age determinations from these samples of 31.2, 30.9, and 28.7 Ma, respectively, support these correlations. Based on an Oligocene palinspastic reconstruction of the region, our results show that ignimbrites travelled over 200 km from their source calderas across what is now the crest of the Sierra Nevada, and that during that time, no drainage divide existed between the ignimbrite source calderas in central Nevada and sample locations 200 km to the west. Palaeoaltimetry data from Sierra Nevada ignimbrites, based on the hydrogen isotopic composition of hydration water in glass, reflect the effect of a steep western slope on precipitation and indicate that the area had elevations similar to the present-day range. These combined results suggest that source calderas were likely located in a region of high elevation to the east of the Oligocene Sierra Nevada, which had a steep western slope that allowed for the large extent and broad distribution of the ignimbrites.

Cenozoic stratigraphic development in the north Chilean forearc: Implications for basin development and uplift history of the Central Andean margin

Analysis of the Cenozoic stratigraphic development of the forearc of northern Chile between 18°S and 23°30′S, allows constraints to be placed on the timing and nature of basin formation and the uplift history of the Central Andes. Chronostratigraphic charts have been constructed from 20 lithostratigraphic sections distributed throughout the forearc. Sections were taken from the Longitudinal Valley, Central Depression, Calama Basin, Salar de Atacama, Precordillera and the western flank of the Western Cordillera. Correlation and timing of events is largely based on the presence of dated volcanic horizons in all the studied sections. Three chronostratigraphic units are defined based upon the presence of regional unconformities. Deposition of the Late Eocene to Early Miocene chronostratigraphic unit (38–19 Ma) commenced across an irregular unconformity surface between ∼ 38 and 30 Ma with alluvial fan and fluvial sediments derived from the east interbedded with rhyolitic ignimbrites. Aggradation after 25 Ma resulted in development of a large broad basin over much of northern Chile that expanded eastwards through onlap onto basement. Deposition terminated around 19 Ma with the development of an angular unconformity over much, but not all of the study area. During deposition of the Early to Late Miocene chronostratigraphic unit (18–10 Ma) emergent volcanic source areas to the east provided catchments for large fluvial systems that drained westwards into endorheic ephemeral lacustrine basins. Fold growth affected sedimentation restricting accommodation space to small intra-thrust basins in the Precordillera and localised disruption and unconformity development in the Longitudinal Valley. The Late Miocene to present day chronostratigraphic unit (10–0 Ma) followed the development of a regional angular unconformity at 10 Ma. Sedimentation was restricted to a series of thrust-bounded endorheic basins in both the Central Depression and the Precordillera sourced from the east with volcanic activity limited to the periodic eruption of extensive ignimbrite sheets. Alluvial fan, fluvial and lacustrine sedimentation dominated within the endorheic basins from ∼ 8 to 3 Ma. After development of a regional unconformity at 3 Ma a change to isolated evaporite sub-basins took place in the Central Depression with small lacustrine basins developed along the flank of the Western Cordillera. The scale and grain size recorded in the sedimentary systems indicates that a substantial source area was located in the present day area of the Western Cordillera by 30 Ma and that this has persisted to the present day. This area also shed material eastwards into the Altiplano. The presence of such a topographic feature by 30 Ma suggests that a significant proportion of Andean uplift had occurred prior to the Late Miocene. This important uplift phase should be incorporated into any model of Andean uplift. The evidence from the basin-fill succession suggests that sediments accumulated in a basin developed in front of a broad monocline between 38 and 19 Ma and that a transition to a thrust-bounded foreland style basin took place after the development of the unconformity at 19 Ma.

Early mafic magmatism and crustal anatexis on the Isle of Rum: evidence from the Am Màm intrusion breccia

AbstractThe Rum Igneous Centre comprises two early marginal felsic complexes (the Northern Marginal Zone and the Southern Mountains Zone), along with the later central ultrabasic–basic layered intrusions. These marginal complexes represent the remnants of near-surface to eruptive felsic magmatism associated with caldera collapse, examples of which are rare in the North Atlantic Igneous Province. Rock units include intra-caldera collapse breccias, rhyolitic ignimbrite deposits and shallow-level felsic intrusions, as well the enigmatic ‘Am Màm intrusion breccia’. The latter comprises a dacitic matrix enclosing lobate basaltic inclusions (~1–15 cm) and a variety of clasts, ranging from millimetres to tens of metres in diameter. These clasts comprise Lewisian gneiss, Torridonian sandstone and coarse gabbro. Detailed re-mapping of the Am Màm intrusion breccia has shown its timing of emplacement as syn-caldera, rather than pre-caldera as previously thought. Textural analysis of entrained clasts and adjacent, uplifted country rocks has revealed their thermal metamorphism by early mafic intrusions at greater depth than their present structural position. These findings provide a window into the evolution of the early mafic magmas responsible for driving felsic magmatism on Rum. Our data help constrain some of the physical parameters of this early magma–crust interaction and place it within the geochemical evolution of the Rum Centre.

On the age of the Harsány ignimbrite, Bükkalja volcanic field, Northern Hungary — a discussion

Correlation of scattered ignimbrite occurrences is crucial in the context of stratigraphy and the volcanic history of an area. In 2007, two papers were published concerning the classification of the volcanic rocks of the Bükkalja volcanic field. The interpretation of these papers shows an apparent contradiction in the age of the ignimbrite, which crops out at Tibolddaróc and Harsány. This paper attempts to resolve this contradiction. We show that the Harsány ignimbrite defined by Lukács et al. (2007) was indeed formed at 13.5 Ma and is not the same as was described by Márton et al. (2007). We redefine the possible locations of the Harsány and Tibolddaróc samples of Márton et al. (2007). The Tibolddaróc sample could represent the ash flow unit in the middle part of the Tibolddaróc volcanic section, whereas the Harsány sample could be derived from the ‘Harsány-bend’ outcrop. Both rocks have different geochemical character compared to the Harsány ignimbrite. This work emphasizes the usefulness of geochemical correlation of scattered rhyolitic ignimbrites, combined with detailed volcanological field observations.

Mineral assemblages of the Francisco I. Madero Zn–Cu–Pb–(Ag) deposit, Zacatecas, Mexico: Implications for ore deposit genesis

The Francisco I. Madero deposit, central Mexico, occurs in the Mesozoic Guerrero Terrane, which hosts many ore deposits, both Cretaceous (volcanogenic massive sulfides) and Tertiary (epithermal and skarn deposits). It is hosted by a 600 m-thick calcareous-pelitic unit, of Lower Cretaceous age, crosscut by porphyritic dikes that strike NW–SE. A thick felsic volcanic Tertiary sequence, consisting of andesites and rhyolitic ignimbrites, unconformably overlies the Cretaceous series. At the base, the mineralization consists of several mantos developed within calcareous beds. They are dominantly composed of sphalerite, pyrrhotite and pyrite with minor chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite and galena. At the top of the orebody, there are calcic skarns formed through prograde and retrograde stages. The resulting mineral assemblages are rich in manganoan hedenbergite (Hd 75–28Di 40–4Jh 40–20), andraditic garnets (Adr 100–62Grs 38–0), epidote (Ep 95–36Czo 60–5Pie 8–0), chamosite, calcite and quartz. The temperature of ore deposition, estimated by chlorite and arsenopyrite geothermometry, ranges from 243° to 277 °C and from 300° to 340 °C, respectively. The pressure estimated from sphalerite geobarometry averages 2.1 kbar. This value corresponds to a moderately deep skarn and agrees with the high Cu content of the deposit. Paragenesis, P– T conditions and geological characteristics are compatible with a distal, dike-related, Zn skarn deposit. Its style of mineralization is similar to that of many high-temperature carbonate replacement skarn deposits in the Southern Cordillera.

Petrogenesis of post – orogenic Lower Permian andesites in southern Europe: insights into the collapse of the Variscan range

In the post-Variscan Early Permian deposits of southwestern Europe, andesites belong to successions characterized by the constant occurrence of a basal rhyolite ignimbrite, followed by andesites, and by abundant dacite-rhyodacite products, interbedded with lacustrine sediments. The subalkaline andesite to K-andesite volcanism developed within intramontane basins following the collapse of the Variscan orogen. The compositional features, including trace element ratios and initial Sr (and Nd) of post-Variscan intermediate products allow excluding continental or island arc settings. The andesite composition of Lower Permian lavas was reproduced starting from two potential primary magmas: picrobasaltic and enriched MORB compositions. In particular, the picrobasalt was modified, by adding incremental amounts of a felsic granulite, from the lower continental crust. Mixing and fractional crystallization (MFC) were modelled by the MELTS software in a closed system under isobaric, isenthalpic conditions (P = 0.3 GPa). The computed residual liquid evolves to match closely the composition of Lower Permian andesite lavas after ~34 % crystallization by adding ~27 % of contaminant to the parental magma.

The fate of basaltic enclaves during pyroclastic eruptions: An origin of andesitic ignimbrites

Igneous enclaves, chilled bodies of magma with compositions contrasting with those of their hosts, have long been recognized in felsic plutonic rocks. Similar enclaves occur in felsic pyroclastic rocks despite the apparent difficulty of their survival of the explosive eruption process without fragmentation. The occurrence of andesitic ignimbrites with textural evidence of generation by mechanical mixing of felsic and mafic ash indicates that in some instances basaltic enclaves in felsic magmas that erupted explosively do indeed undergo fragmentation and homogenization with their host. Two exposures of rhyolitic ignimbrite that hosts basaltic enclaves, and of andesitic ignimbrite, in coastal Maine demonstrate the set of conditions necessary for survival of basaltic enclaves during catastrophic explosive eruptions. Relatively lower viscosity of basaltic enclaves compared to the rhyolitic host magma permits vesicle networks to develop as volatiles exsolve from the melt and form bubbles. The vesicle networks provide sufficient permeability for exsolving gases to escape the basaltic magma bodies, hence sparing the basaltic enclaves from fragmentation. If adequate permeability for volatile escape does not develop, the expanding bubbles are trapped within the basaltic enclave and ultimately, with depressurization during rise of the magma to the surface, cause fragmentation of the basaltic magma. In this case, the basaltic ash and the host rhyolitic ash homogenize, producing a hybrid ignimbrite, while the surrounding viscous rhyolitic magma behaves typically, with a small volume of the rhyolitic magma retaining its coherence as pumice bodies while most of the magma fragments shortly after vesiculation to become ash. These observations suggest a distinction between the voluminous andesites associated with subduction zones, for which attainment of intermediate composition occurred as a result of petrologic processes unique to subduction zones, and hybrid andesitic ignimbrites, which are spatially associated with bimodal magmatic systems in a variety of tectonic settings and are the result of mechanical mixing of ash during pyroclastic flow.