Rhyolitic Composition Research Articles

First evidence of a distal early Holocene ash layer in Eastern Mediterranean deep-sea sediments derived from the Anatolian volcanic province

A hitherto unknown distal volcanic ash layer has been detected in a sediment core recovered from the southeastern Levantine Sea (Eastern Mediterranean Sea). Radiometric, stratigraphic and sedimentological data show that the tephra, here termed as S1 tephra, was deposited between 8970 and 8690 cal yr BP. The high-silica rhyolitic composition excludes an origin from any known eruptions of the Italian, Aegean or Arabian volcanic provinces but suggests a prevailing Central Anatolian provenance. We compare the S1 tephra with proximal to medial-distal tephra deposits from well-known Mediterranean ash layers and ash fall deposits from the Central Anatolian volcanic field using electron probe microanalyses on volcanic glass shards and morphological analyses on ash particles. We postulate a correlation with the Early Holocene ‘Dikkartın’ dome eruption of Erciyes Dağ volcano (Cappadocia, Turkey). So far, no tephra of the Central Anatolian volcanic province has been detected in marine sediment archives in the Eastern Mediterranean region. The occurrence of the S1 tephra in the south-eastern part of the Levantine Sea indicates a wide dispersal of pyroclastic material from Erciyes Dağ more than 600 km to the south and is therefore an important tephrostratigraphical marker in sediments of the easternmost Mediterranean Sea and the adjacent hinterland.

Chemical composition of whole-rocks samples and volcanic glasses of the Miocene Tamateyama and Sekibutsu Tuffs in the area surrounding the Nara Basin

We used XRF and INAA methods to analyze the chemical composition of whole-rock and volcanic glass samples from the Tamateyama and Sekibutsu Tuffs in the area surrounding the Nara Basin. Both tuffs have rhyolitic compositions with SiO2=73.6-75.0 wt.%, similar to that of the Muro Pyroclastic Flow Deposits (Muro PFD). The REE patterns of the tuffs are characterized by light REE enrichment, a pronounced negative Eu anomaly, and relatively constant chondrite-normalized middle to heavy REE abundances. These features are similar to those of S-type felsic rocks of the Outer Zone of southwest Japan. Our new petrochemical data provide additional constraints on correlations of the Tamateyama Tuff, Sekibutsu Tuff, and Muro PFD, and indicate that these units were derived from a large felsic igneous body in the Outer Zone of the Kii Peninsula.

Liquid composition-dependence of calcium isotope fractionation during diffusion in molten silicates

Liquid phase diffusion experiments were carried out to determine whether diffusive isotopic fractionation of a major chemical element (Ca) varies with chemical composition in high-temperature molten silicates. The objective was to determine how differences in silicate liquid structure, such as the ratio of bridging to non-bridging oxygen atoms, as well as bulk transport properties such as viscosity, relate to isotope discrimination during diffusion. This information, in turn, may relate to the lifetimes and sizes of multi-atom structures in the liquid. Diffusion couples consisting of juxtaposed natural mafic and felsic liquids were held at T = 1450 °C and P = 1.0 GPa for durations of 12–24 h in a standard piston–cylinder assembly. Experiments were done using different mafic endmember compositions (two tholeiitic basalts and a ugandite) and a single rhyolite composition. Major-element diffusion profiles and Ca isotope profiles were measured on the recovered quenched glasses. The starting materials were isotopically indistinguishable, but 44Ca/ 40Ca variations of ca. 5‰ arose due to a mass dependence of the Ca diffusion coefficients. Results indicate that the mass dependence of Ca diffusion coefficients varies with the magnitude and direction of aluminum gradients and the viscosity of the liquid. Some Ca fractionations result mainly from Al gradients. A simplified multicomponent diffusion model was used to model the experimental results. The model allows for diffusion of Ca in response to gradients in the concentrations of both CaO as well as Al 2O 3, and the model results are consistent with the inferred existence of at least two distinct species of Ca. The magnitude of isotopic discrimination during diffusion also appears to be stronger on the rhyolite versus the basalt/ugandite side of diffusion couples. The results can largely be accounted for by an adaptation of the model of Dingwell (1990), whereby in high silica liquids, Ca diffuses largely by site hopping through a quasi-stationary aluminosilicate matrix, producing strong isotopic effects because the Ca diffusion is not strongly correlated with the movement of the framework atoms. In low-silica liquids, Ca diffusion is correlated with the movement of the other components and there is less mass discrimination. Combining our Ca results with Ca, Mg, and Li data from previous studies, we show that this model can explain most of the cation- and composition-dependence of diffusive isotopic fractionations observed thus far. A key parameter controlling isotopic discrimination is the ratio of the elemental (Ca, Mg, Li) diffusivity to the Eyring (or Si) diffusivity. However, all experiments done so far also exhibit isotopic features that are not yet fully explained; some of these may relate to small temperature gradients in the capsules, or to more complex coupling effects that are not captured in simplified diffusion models.

Syn-extensional intra-plate trachydacite-rhyolitic dome volcanism of the Mesa Central, southern Sierra Madre Occidental volcanic province, Mexico

Oligocene dome complexes of trachydacitic to rhyolitic composition are common in the southern portion of the Mesa Central physiographic province, which forms part of the southern Basin and Range extensional province as well as of the southern Sierra Madre Occidental volcanic province. Generally, dome complexes occur aligned with regional fault systems, mostly associated with the southern Basin and Range province, and thus suggesting that faults controlled the felsic magmas that formed these domes. Two distribution patterns are evident, one aligned NE–SW and another aligned NNE. The set of domes were emplaced at 33–28 Ma. Emplacement of domes occurred in three continuous phases starting with those of trachydacite affinity at 33–32 Ma, to trachydacite–rhyolitic at 32–31 Ma, and finally to those with rhyolitic composition at 31–28 Ma. Felsic magmas that originated the domes were apparently generated by partial melting at the base of the continental crust. Contrary to previous hypothesis, our evidence suggest that these magmas in these particular areas of the Mesa Central were not accumulated in large magma reservoirs emplaced at shallow levels in the crust, but crossed the continental crust directly. Since continental crust in this region is relatively thin (30–33 km), we propose that an intense extensional episode favored the direct ascension of these magmas through the brittle crust, with little interaction with the country rock during ascent to the surface, to end up forming aligned dome chains or complexes. Geochemical data favors this model, as the felsic rocks show no depletions in Nb and Th but instead relatively enrichment in these elements. REE show flat or concave up patterns, suggesting that the magmas involved enriched (fertile), metasomatized lithospheric fluids that generated partial melting at the base of the continental crust. Based upon these data, we infer an intra-plate tectonic setting for these rocks.

Provenance and U–Pb geochronology of the Upper Cretaceous El Chanate Group, northwest Sonora, Mexico, and its tectonic significance

The Upper Cretaceous El Chanate Group, northwest Sonora, Mexico, is a 2.8 km thick clastic sedimentary sequence deposited in a continental basin closely related to volcanic activity. It consists of three formations: the Pozo Duro (oldest), the Anita, and the Escalante (youngest). Petrographic study, conglomerate pebble counts, and U–Pb geochronology of detrital zircons were performed to determine the source and age of this sequence, and to interpret its tectonic setting. In the sandstones of all three formations, the most abundant grains are those of volcanic composition (Q38F22L40, Q35F19L46, and Q31F22L47, respectively). The Pozo Duro Formation includes well-rounded quartz-arenite clast conglomerates, whereas conglomerates of the two upper units have clasts predominantly of andesitic and rhyolitic composition. The most likely source for these sediments was the Jurassic volcanic arc exposed in northern Sonora and southern Arizona. Zircons from five sandstone samples define two main age groups, Proterozoic and Mesozoic. The first ranges mostly from 1000 to 1800 Ma, which suggests the influence of a cratonic source. This zircon suite is interpreted to be recycled and derived from the same source area as the quartz-rich sandstone clasts in the basal part of the section. Mesozoic zircons range from Triassic to Late Cretaceous, which confirms the proposed Late Cretaceous age for the sequence, and also corroborates Jurassic felsic source rocks. Another possible source was the Alisitos volcanic arc, exposed along the western margin of the Baja California Peninsula. Of regional significance is the great similarity between the El Chanate Group and the McCoy Mountains Formation of southeastern California and southwestern Arizona. Both are Cretaceous, were deposited in continental environments, and have similar zircon-age patterns. Also, both exhibit intense deformation and locally display penetrative foliation. These features strongly suggest that both units underwent similar tectonic histories.

Early Holocene volcanic ash fallout in the Yammoûneh lacustrine basin (Lebanon): Tephrochronological implications for the Near East

A volcanic ash layer (Tyam-1) was identified in Holocene sediments from the Yammoûneh paleo-lake (Lebanon). The ash layer consisted of colourless shards. The major elemental chemistry of the glass as determined by electron microprobe analyses indicates a rhyolitic composition. Radiocarbon dating of detrital wood fragments located in the ash layer suggests an age of approximately 8.6 ka cal. BP. The timing of the layer and a chemical comparison with other published data suggest that Tyam-1 likely originated from Anatolia, and likely corresponds to early Holocene Z3–Z4–Z5 tephras. The preliminary results provided in this manuscript suggest a new stratigraphical and chronological marker for the continental records of Lebanon and neighbouring regions.

The Dzhalinda Deposit in the Amur Region, Russia: Genesis and position in the classification of tin deposits

The Dzhalinda wood tin deposit is located at the eastern margin of the Bureya Massif and, according to the Russian classification of tin deposits, is referred to the rhyolite-hosted type. The Dzhalinda deposit is compared with the deposits located in the southwestern United States and in northern Mexico. In spite of some similar features, the Dzhalinda deposit differs significantly from the American deposits in the composition of ore-bearing rhyolite and the type and composition of host rocks. It is suggested that the ore-bearing rhyolitic melt at the Dzhalinda deposit evolved with the formation of a highly silicic residual melt depleted in P and Li and enriched in Sn, being opposed in this respect to the ongonite model typical of such deposits. The drastic change in the physicochemical parameters of the system caused by the evolution of the melt under near-surface conditions of a volcanic vent led to the separation of Si-Sn complexes, which broke down into various silica modifications and oolite-like wood tin.

Cannibalization of an amphibole-rich andesitic progenitor induced by caldera-collapse during the Matahina eruption: Evidence from amphibole compositions

The diverse range of calcic-amphibole compositions in eruptive products from the ca. 330 ka Matahina eruption (ca. 160 km 3 rhyolitic magma) of the Okataina Volcanic Complex, Taupo Volcanic Zone, including crystal-rich basalt-dacite pumice from post-collapse deposits, reveals several pre- and syn-eruption magmatic processes. (1) Amphibole phenocrysts in the basaltic-andesite and andesite crystallized at the highest pressures and temperatures (P to 0.6 ± 0.06 GPa and T to 950 °C), equivalent to mid-crustal depths (13-22 km). Inter- and intra-crystalline compositions range from Timagnesiohastingsite → Ti-tschermakite → tschermakite → magnesiohornblende and some display gradual decreases in T from core to rim, both consistent with magma differentiation by cooling at depth. (2) The largest amphibole crystals from the basaltic-andesite to andesite display several core to rim increases in T (to 70 °C), indicating that new, hotter magma periodically fluxed the crystal mush. (3) The dominant population of rhyolite amphibole is small and bladed (magnesiohornblende) and crystallized at low P-T conditions (P = 0.3 GPa, T = 765 °C), equivalent to the eruptive P-T conditions. Dacitic and low-silica rhyolitic amphibole (tschermakite-magnesiohornblende) form two distinct populations, which nucleated at two different T (high: 820 °C and low: 750 °C). These compositional variations, governed primarily by differences in T conditions during crystal growth, record the mixing of two distinct amphibole populations that approached a thermal equilibrium at the eruptive temperature. Therefore, the diversity in amphibole compositions can be reconciled as an exchange of crystals + liquid between the basaltic-andesite to dacite from the mid-crust and rhyolite from the upper crust, which quenched against one another, modifying the dacite to low-silica rhyolite compositions as the eruption progressed.

Geochemistry and Nd - isotopic composition of high silica rhyolites in the neoarchaean Musoma-Mara greenstone belt, northern Tanzania: evidence for the presence of older continental crust

The high silica rhyolites of the Kibasuka Hill, although volumetrically minor, constitute a part of the greenstone sequence in the northern Musoma-Mara Greenstone Belt (MMGB). They are characterized by high silica contents (63.38 – 81.65 wt %), very low CaO (! 0.05 wt %),variable to unusually high K2O (2.24 – 13.43 wt %) most likely attributed to strong sericite alteration, and their major element composition are similar to those of melts derived from partial melting of metapelites. The samples have very low concentration of the transition elements, Sr (3.13 – 48.4 ppm) and very large negative Europium anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.27 –0.48). Their Nd isotopic composition reveals that the T-depleted mantle (DM) model ages of the samples are highly variable and range from 2867 Ma to 4015 Ma. These geochemical features are consistent with generation of the high silica rhyolites by partial melting of a heterogeneous source composed of juvenile Archaean rocks of the MMGB and older sedimentary rocks. The later imparts to the rocks very old mean crustal residence ages. Partial melting of this suite took place at low-pressure conditions within the continental crust where plagioclase was a stable phase. Such old TDM model ages of up to 4015 Ma recorded by the high silica rhyolites suggest the presence of very old continental crust in the MMGB which has so far not been identified anywhere else in the Tanzania Craton.

Intra-crater deposits of the Toga tuff ring, Oga Peninsula, NE Japan

The Toga tuff ring is a large, dissected tuff ring located on the modern shoreline of the Oga Peninsula, NE Japan. The crater measures 2 km by 2.4 km and the inner crater walls are inclined inward at 40–50° to form a funnel shape. Intra-crater beds are mainly composed of platy or blocky, non- to variably vesicular glass shards and pumice lapilli of K-rich rhyolite composition and dip inward at 10°–30° or less. A gravity model suggests they fill the downward-tapering conduit to a depth of 548 m below sea level. Fission-track dates from the intra-crater deposits indicate the age of the Toga tuff ring is ca. 420 ka, likely corresponding to a stage of global sea-level fall, MIS 12. Subsequent sea-level rise and marine transgression is inferred to have resulted in erosion of almost the entire outer tuff ring by post-eruptive wave action. The intra-crater deposit`s are exposed over a thickness of 50 m in the deeply incised crater floor. They comprise mainly monomictic tephra of phreatomagmatic origin and are similar in grain-size distribution and sedimentary structures to relatively high and low density turbidites, although the constituents, sparse block-sag structures, and multiple fluid-escape dikes suggest that they are the subaqueous equivalents of high- and low-density pyroclastic currents with similar grain-sizes and degree of grain-size sorting. Marine diatom frustules sparsely contained in the deposits suggest that the crater was likely open to the sea, enabling rapid access of seawater to the vent. Pyroclasts ejected through the water flowed back into the crater to form eruption-fed oscillatory or circular turbidity currents and were repeatedly recycled and variably abraded by subsequent explosions, while many juvenile pumice lapilli and ash grains were carried beyond the crater rim to form relatively dilute pyroclastic currents. The Toga example suggests that primary deposits emplaced in crater lakes are well sorted, graded and stratified with polymodal flow directions, sparse block-sags, and vesicular and fragile fragments that are more or less abraded by repeated explosions and recycling.

Accessory mineral U–Th–Pb ages and 40Ar/39Ar eruption chronology, and their bearing on rhyolitic magma evolution in the Pleistocene Coso volcanic field, California

We determined Ar/Ar eruption ages of eight extrusions from the Pleistocene Coso volcanic field, a long-lived series of small volume rhyolitic domes in eastern California. Combined with ion-microprobe dating of crystal ages of zircon and allanite from these lavas and from granophyre geothermal well cuttings, we were able to track the range of magma-production rates over the past 650 ka at Coso. In ≤230 ka rhyolites we find no evidence of protracted magma residence or recycled zircon (or allanite) from Pleistocene predecessors. A significant subset of zircon in the ~85 ka rhyolites yielded ages between ~100 and 200 Ma, requiring that generation of at least some rhyolites involves material from Mesozoic basement. Similar zircon xenocrysts are found in an ~200 ka granophyre. The new age constraints imply that magma evolution at Coso can occur rapidly as demonstrated by significant changes in rhyolite composition over short time intervals (≤10’s to 100’s ka). In conjunction with radioisotopic age constraints from other young silicic volcanic fields, dating of Coso rhyolites highlights the fact that at least some (and often the more voluminous) rhyolites are produced relatively rapidly, but that many small-volume rhyolites likely represent separation from long-lived mushy magma bodies.

Fractionation of Peralkaline Silicic Magmas: the Greater Olkaria Volcanic Complex, Kenya Rift Valley

The Greater Olkaria Volcanic Complex is a young (20 ka) multi-centred system in the central Kenya Rift Valley, mainly represented at outcrop by peralkaline rhyolites. The rhyolites show significant compositional variation; peralkalinity [mol. (Na2O + K2O)/Al2O3] varies from 1·01 to 1·55, Zr contents from 442 to 3640 ppm and Rb contents from 262 to 1056 ppm. More peralkaline rhyolites were generated along multiple, but generally closely similar, liquid lines of descent by 75% fractional crystallization of alkali feldspar–quartz-dominated assemblages from mildly peralkaline parental magmas, themselves probably derived by fractionation of trachytic magmas. Crystal fractionation took place at more than one upper crustal level. The rhyolite magmas were erupted from 13 centres, each having an eruptive history and geochemical evolution broadly similar to, but distinct from, those of the other centres. For most of the life span of the Olkaria system, almost the whole spectrum of peralkaline rhyolite compositions was erupted from vents in the complex at any one time. Apparent partition coefficients are presented for 34 trace elements in sanidine, fayalite, ferrohedenbergite, amphibole, biotite, ilmenite and chevkinite-(Ce). With the exception of certain values for Ba, Rb and Sr in sanidine, most coefficients vary systematically with whole-rock composition.

Geochemistry of Paleozoic ignimbrites in central Kazakhstan and their petrogenetic significance

Ignimbrites in the Devonian and Late Paleozoic volcanic belts in central Kazakhstan were produced in various geotectonic environments and are diverse in composition. The bulk composition of the Devonian ignimbrites is rhyolitic. The Eifelian rocks of the Chingiz island-arc system belong to the calc-alkaline series and are enriched in Zr, Nb, Y, and REE (predominantly LREE). The Frasnian ignimbrites that were formed in unusual island arcs of the Mediterranean type are ultrapotassic. Compared to the Eifelian ignimbrites, they bear lower concentrations of Zr, Nb, Y, and REE but are richer in Rb and Ba. Both rock varieties show clearly pronounced Eu minima and Ce anomalies. The Carboniferous and Permian ignimbrites were generated within a volcanic belt in a continental margin. The Carboniferous ignimbrites are mostly of dacite-rhyolite and sometimes of dacitic andesite composition. Compared to the Devonian ignimbrites, they are depleted in Zr, Nb, and Y at higher concentrations of Ba and low REE sums, which are notably dominated by LREE; their Eu minima are small, and they have no Ce anomalies. The Permian ignimbrites are predominantly of rhyolite composition. The Early Permian rocks have REE sums close to those in the Carboniferous rocks, but the former have clearly pronounced Eu minima and Ce anomalies. The Late Permian ignimbrites have total REE concentrations close to those in the Devonian ignimbrites, but the former are strongly enriched in LREE and have prominent Eu minima and Ce anomalies. The major-and trace-element composition of fiamme in all ignimbrite varieties varies depending on the relative age of the fiamme. The REE patterns of the fiamme differ from massif to massif, but their systematic changes from older to younger fiamme are similar. Along with the identity of the isotopic characteristics of whole-rock ignimbrite samples and fiamme of different ages in them, this testifies that the ignimbrites were formed not via the mixing of various melts but by the systematic evolution of a parental melts, which were different for different massifs.

Dyke swarms of the Paraná triple junction, southern Brazil

This work intends primarily to survey the field, mineralogical and petrographic characters of the mafic dykes which occur on a stretch of 650 km along the Southeastern coast of Brazil, between the city of Sao Sebastiao, and the island of Santa Catarina. New chemical and geochronological data are also presented. The coastal dyke swarms are envisaged as the northern and southern arms of a plume-generated triple junction system centered on the Parana State coast, and related to the initial opening of the South Atlantic. Mafic magma intruded as dyke swarms along three directions: N-S (the southern arm, along the Parana-Santa Catarina coast), NW-SE (Ponta Grossa arch) and NE-SW (the northern arm along the Sao Paulo coast). Fifty two dykes, almost all tholeiitic diabases, were mapped and sampled along the south arm coast. The Ponta Grossa arch dykes are chiefly composed of tholeiitic diabases and lesser intrusions of andesitic to rhyolitic composition. Over 240 dykes were sampled and identified along the north arm west of Sao Sebastiao. Lamprophyres are here abundant, followed by diabases, microdiorite porphyries and lesser amounts of trachy-andesite, carbonatite and Precambrian dykes. Special attention was given to the study of lamprophyres, their field appearance relative abundance, mineral and chemical composition, enclaves and relations to neighboring alkaline intrusions.

Mineralogy and Isotope Geochemistry of Active Submarine Hydrothermal Field at Suiyo Seamount, Izu–Bonin Arc, West Pacific Ocean

AbstractThis report presents mineralogical, geochemical and isotopic data on samples obtained using the Benthic Multi‐coring System (BMS) to drill a submarine hydrothermal deposit developed in a caldera on the summit of the Suiyo Seamount in the Izu–Bonin Island Arc, south of Japan. This deposit is regarded as the first example of Kuroko‐type sulfide mineralization on a volcano at the volcanic front of an island arc. The mineralization and hydrothermal alteration below the 300 × 150‐m area of active venting was investigated to depths of 2–9 m below the sea floor. Drilling beneath the area of active venting recovered a sequence of altered volcanic rocks (dacite lavas, pyroclastic rocks of dacite–rhyolite compositions and pumice) associated with sulfide veining and patches/veins of anhydrite. No massive sulfide was found, however, and the subsea‐floor mineralization to 10 m depth is dominated by anhydrite and clay minerals with some sulfides. Sulfide‐bearing samples contained high Au (up to 42 ppm), Ag (up to 263 ppm), As (up to 1550 ppm), Hg (up to 55 ppm), Sb (up to 772 ppm), and Se (up to 24 ppm). Electron probe microanalyzer indicated that realgar, orpiment, and mimetite were major As‐bearing minerals. The sulfides were also characterized by high Zn (>10%) compared to Cu (<6.3%) and Pb (<0.6%). The δ202Hg/198Hg, δ202Hg/199Hg and δ202Hg/200Hg of the sulfide‐bearing dacite samples and a sulfide chimney decreased with increasing Hg/Zn concentration ratio. The variation of the δ202Hg/198Hg ranged from −2.8 to +0.5‰ to relative to S‐HG02027. The large range of these δ202Hg/198Hg was greater than might be expected for such a heavy element and may be due to a predominance of kinetic effects. The variation of δ202Hg/198Hg of sulfide‐bearing dacite samples suggested that light Hg isotope in the vapor mixed with oxygenated seawater near sea floor during mineralization. Lead isotope ratios of the sulfide were very similar to those of the dacite lava, suggesting that lead is of magmatic origin. The 87Sr/86Sr ratio (0.70872) of anhydrite was different from that of the dacite lava, and suggests an Sr derivation predominantly from seawater. Hydrothermal alteration of the dacite in the Suiyo hydrothermal field was characterized by Fe‐sulfides, anhydrite, barite, montmorillonite, chlorite/montmorillonite mixed‐layer minerals, mica, and chlorite with little or no feldspar or cristobalite. Hydrothermal clay minerals changed with depth from montmorillonite to chlorite/montmorillonite mixed‐layer minerals to chlorite and mica. Hydrogen isotope ratios of chlorite/montmorillonite and mixed‐layer, mica‐chlorite composites obtained below the active venting sites ranged from −49 to −24‰, suggesting seawater as the dominant fluid causing alteration. Oxygen isotope ratios of anhydrite ranged from 9.2 to 10.4‰ and anhydrite formation temperatures were calculated to be 188–207°C. Oxygen isotope ratios ranged from +5.2 to +9.2‰ for montmorillonite, +3.2 to +4.5‰ for chlorite/montmorillonite mixed‐layer minerals, and +2.8 to +3.8‰ in mixtures of chlorite and mica. The formation temperatures of montmorillonite and of the chlorite–mica mixture were 160–250°C and 230–270°C, respectively. The isotope temperatures for clay minerals (220–270°C) and anhydrite (188°C) were significantly lower than the borehole temperature (308.3°C) measured just after the drilling, suggesting that temperature at this site is now higher than when clay minerals and anhydrite were formed.

The Roles of Fractional Crystallization, Magma Mixing, Crystal Mush Remobilization and Volatile–Melt Interactions in the Genesis of a Young Basalt–Peralkaline Rhyolite Suite, the Greater Olkaria Volcanic Complex, Kenya Rift Valley

The Greater Olkaria Volcanic Complex is a young ( 20 ka) multi-centred lava and dome field dominated by the eruption of peralkaline rhyolites. Basaltic and trachytic magmas have been erupted peripherally to the complex and also form, with mugearites and benmoreites, an extensive suite of magmatic inclusions in the rhyolites. The eruptive rocks commonly represent mixed magmas and the magmatic inclusions are themselves two-, three- or four-component mixes. All rock types may carry xenocrysts of alkali feldspar, and less commonly plagioclase, derived from magma mixing and by remobilization of crystal mushes and/or plutonic rocks. Xenoliths in the range gabbro–syenite are common in the lavas and magmatic inclusions, the more salic varieties sometimes containing silicic glass representing partial melts and ranging in composition from anorthite ± corundum- to acmite-normative. The peralkaline varieties are broadly similar, in major element terms, to the eruptive peralkaline rhyolites. The basalt–trachyte suite formed by a combination of fractional crystallization, magma mixing and resorption of earlier-formed crystals. Matrix glass in metaluminous trachytes has a peralkaline rhyolitic composition, indicating that the eruptive rhyolites may have formed by fractional crystallization of trachyte. Anomalous trace element enrichments (e.g. 2000 ppm Y in a benmoreite) and negative Ce anomalies may have resulted from various Na- and K-enriched fluids evolving from melts of intermediate composition and either being lost from the system or enriched in other parts of the reservoirs. A small group of nepheline-normative, usually peralkaline, magmatic inclusions was formed by fluid transfer between peralkaline rhyolitic and benmoreitic magmas. The plumbing system of the complex consists of several independent reservoirs and conduits, repeatedly recharged by batches of mafic magma, with ubiquitous magma mixing.

Magma evolution in the Pliocene–Pleistocene succession of Kos, South Aegean arc (Greece)

This study investigates the petrogenesis of Pliocene−Quaternary andesites, dacites and rhyolites of the island of Kos. These volcanic rocks differ from other volcanic centres in the South Aegean arc in the narrow range of Pliocene volcanic products, the abundance of high-silica rhyolite, the lower ε Nd for a given Sr isotope composition, and greater depth to the subducting slab. Pliocene and early Pleistocene dacite stocks and rhyolite domes are succeeded by younger tuffs, notably the 0.16 Ma Kos Plateau Tuff derived from a super-eruption of an andesite stratocone now subsided beneath the sea south of Kos. Volcanic products in tuffs have been sampled from lithic clasts. Andesite, dacite and rhyolite all have ε Nd ∼+ 1.5 to −1.5 and 86Sr/ 87Sr ∼ 0.7042; this unusual composition is argued to be the result of subduction of sediments derived from the River Nile. All rock types show structures indicative of widespread magma mixing, including complexly zoned plagioclase, clinopyroxene and amphibole containing glass inclusions of trachyte and rhyolite compositions. The observed rocks result from fractionation and mixing of three principal magma types: (a) calc-alkaline high-Al basalt that fractionated to andesite at the base of crust; (b) partially melted metabasaltic amphibolite underplated at the base of crust, that fractionated to produce high-SiO 2 rhyolite; and (c) a minor component of trachytic magma from partial melting of enriched subcontinental lithospheric mantle. The complexly zoned phenocrysts with glass inclusions provide specific evidence for mixing of these three components. Specifically, it was the emplacement of the andesite into a voluminous rhyolite magma in a mid-crustal magma chamber that led to the explosive Kos Plateau Tuff super-eruption.

Rhyolites of the Mbépit Massif in the Cameroon Volcanic Line: an early extrusive volcanic episode of Eocene age

The Mbepit Massif, one of the oldest volcanoes of the Cameroon Volcanic Line, was built up during the Eocene (40K/40Ar ages of 45.5 and 44.0 Ma). Located in the Eastern part of the Noun Plain, North-East of Foumbot, this massif is made up mainly of rhyolitic domes and thick, viscous lava flows. Such felsic lavas are rather rare in the Cameroon Volcanic Line. Most rhyolites are porphyritic and contain phenocrysts of K-feldspars (Or97–89), Na-feldspars (Ab99–88) and quartz. Scarce Fe–Ti oxides comprise titanohaematite and hemo-ilmenite. Owing to their low CaO contents, rhyolite compositions range from metaluminous to peraluminous (with normative corundum) and less commonly, peralkaline (normative aegirine). Chondrite-normalised REE patterns show LREE enrichment; and LaN/YbN ratios between 12.2 and 17.2, with prominent negative Eu anomalies (0.16 < Eu/Eu* < 0.62). The Th/Ta ratios range between 2.6 and 3. Initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios (0.7047 and 0.7050) and 143Nd/144Nd ratios (0.5125 and 0.5126, eNd of −1.04 to +1.22) suggest mantle sources (HIMU (high µ with μ = 238U/204Pb), EM (Enriched Mantle), FOZO (FOcal ZOne) components) of the rhyolites accompanied by little or no crustal contamination.

Iron and lithium isotope systematics of the Hekla volcano, Iceland — Evidence for Fe isotope fractionation during magma differentiation

In this study potential iron isotope fractionation by magmatic processes in the Earth's crust was systematically investigated. High precision iron isotope analyses by MC-ICP-MS were performed on a suite of rock samples representative for the volcanic evolution of the Hekla volcano, Iceland. The whole series of Hekla's rocks results from several processes. (i) Basaltic magmas rise and induce partial melting of meta-basalts in the lower part of the Icelandic crust. The resulting dacitic magma evolves to rhyolitic composition through crystal fractionation. During this differentiation the δ 56/54Fe IRMM-014 values increase successively from 0.051 ± 0.021‰ for the primitive dacites to 0.168 ± 0.021‰ for the rhyolites. This increase can be described by a Rayleigh fractionation model using a constant bulk fractionation factor between all mineral phases (M) and the silicate liquid (L) of Δ 56/54Fe M–L = − 0.1‰. (ii) The basaltic magma itself differentiates by crystal fractionation to basaltic andesite composition. No Fe isotope fractionation was found in this series. All basalts and basaltic andesites have an average δ 56/54Fe IRMM-014 value of 0.062 ± 0.042‰ (2SD, n = 9), identical to mean terrestrial basaltic values reported in previous studies. This observation is consistent with the limited removal of iron from the remaining silicate melt through crystal fractionation and small mineral-melt Fe isotope fractionation factors expected at temperatures in excess of 1050 °C. (iii) Andesites are produced by mixing of basaltic andesite with dacitic melts. The iron isotope composition of the andesites is matching that of the basaltic andesites and the less evolved dacites, in agreement with a mixing process. In the Hekla volcanic suite Li concentrations are positively correlated with indicators of magma differentiation. All Hekla rocks have δ 7Li values typical for the upper mantle and demonstrate the absence of resolvable Li isotope fractionation during crystal fractionation. As a fluid-mobile trace element, Li concentrations and isotopes are a potential tracer of magma/fluid interaction. At Hekla, Li concentrations and isotope compositions do not indicate any extensive fluid exsolution. Hence, the heavy Fe isotope composition of the dacites and rhyolites can be predominately attributed to fractional crystallisation. Iron isotope analyses on single samples from other Icelandic volcanoes (Torfajökull, Vestmannaeyjar) confirm heavy Fe isotope enrichment in evolving magmas. Our results suggest that the iron isotope composition of highly evolved crust can be slightly modified by magmatic processes.

What was the groundwater quality before mining in a mineralized region? Lessons from the Questa project

The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the New Mexico Environment Department and supported by Molycorp, Inc (currently Chevron Minerals), has completed a 5-year investigation (2001–2006) to determine the pre-mining groundwater quality at Molycorp’s Questa molybdenum mine in northern New Mexico. Current mine-site ground waters are often contaminated with mine-waste leachates and no data exists on pre-mining ground-water quality so that pre-mining conditions must be inferred. Ground-water quality undisturbed by mining is often worse than New Mexico standards and data are needed to help establish closure requirements. The key to determining pre-mining conditions was to study the hydrogeochemistry of a proximal natural analog site, the Straight Creek catchment. Main rock types exposed to weathering include a Tertiary andesite and the Tertiary Amalia tuff (rhyolitic composition), both hydrothermally altered to various degrees. Two types of ground water are common in mineralized areas, acidic ground waters in alluvial debris fans with pH 3–4 and bedrock ground waters with pH 6–8. Siderite, ferrihydrite, rhodochrosite, amorphous to microcrystalline Al(OH)3, calcite, gypsum, barite, and amorphous silica mineral solubilities control concentrations of Fe(II), Fe(III), Mn(II), Al, Ca, Ba, and SiO2, depending on pH and solution composition. Concentrations at low pH are governed by element abundance and mineral weathering rates. Concentrations of Zn and Cd range from detection up to about 10 and 0.05 mg/L, respectively, and are derived primarily from sphalerite dissolution. Concentrations of Ni and Co range from detection up to 1 and 0.4 mg/L, respectively, and are derived primarily from pyrite dissolution. Concentrations of Ca and SO4 are derived from secondary gypsum dissolution and weathering of calcite and pyrite. Metal:sulfate concentration ratios are relatively constant for acidic waters, suggesting consistent weathering rates, independent of catchment. These trends, combined with lithology, mineralogy, and mineral solubility controls, provide useful constraints on pre-mining ground-water quality for the mine site where the lithology is known.