Rhus Verniciflua Research Articles

Painted Decorations on the Chinese and French Lacquers of an Eighteenth-Century Chest of Drawers: When One Runs over onto the Other

ABSTRACTThis study was done to ascertain if some Chinese red lacquered panels had been subsequently integrated onto the two sides and drawer fronts of the original commode, and some secondary areas covered with French imitation lacquer. Another question was the presence of two different stamps marked on the front legs. The results were as expected concerning the use of urushi on the panels. The Chinese lacquer was coloured red with a vermilion base and the French imitation tinted with a lead-based pigment, probably minium. More surprising were the decorations added to the lacquer and especially their distribution over the surfaces. Inserts were added to the Chinese panels at the time of their integration to enable them to fit to the larger commode dimensions. As golden decorations were also applied to these elements it was logical for these to have been made in France, but the real surprise is that a large proportion of the existing Chinese designs were also covered with a new coating of French decorations. Some empty spaces in the Oriental lacquered areas were also filled with new decorations in imitation of the Chinese ones. Finally, the initial round of analyses provided an explanation for the presence of the two stamps; the piece was converted from a chest decorated with marquetry to one with lacquered surfaces. But new questions arose and the history of the commode became more uncertain when later analyses of the French lacquer discerned the presence of PR3, a pigment that appeared only in the twentieth century.

An analysis of Chinese lacquerwares from the Bugry cemetery (Altay Krai, Russia) in the State Hermitage Museum

Chinese lacquerware from Barrow 1 of the Bugry cemetery (late third century BC) in Altay Krai (Russia) features surviving paint fragments that allow for a comparative description of lacquer compositions and to reconstruct the object type. This article presents the results of the study of the characteristics of the paints and the technologies used in producing the colorings in the lacquer. Methods used includes optical microscopy, cross-section, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometry (FTIR), and X-ray analysis. Object fragments allowed the reconstruction of the type of objects and comparative studies of lacquer composition. Differential thermal analysis (DTA) detected specific differences in thermal degradation of the lacquer films in the range 700 °C that clearly reflect the structure of the paint of each artifact. The multilayer coatings of the lacquer fragments were made by a special technology using a natural material that is derived from the Sap of the Chinese lacquer tree. The base material is a biopolymer of urushiol, a mixture of pyrocatechols contained in the Sap of lacquer tree (Rhus verniciflua; Chinese qi shu 漆树, English qi-lacquer, Japanese urushi). Comparison of the suite of physico-chemical analyses shows some differences with the compositions of the lacquer objects from the Noyon uul Barrows, but they also show similarities in chemical composition between the even earlier archaeological coating lacquers from the Bugry Barrows with lacquer artifacts from the burial Pazyryk in the Altai region.

Effect of hexamethylenetetramine on the property of Chinese lacquer film

Hexamethylenetetramine (HMTA) was used to modify the raw Chinese lacquer and the film was characterized by using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results show that the property of the Chinese lacquer film was improved due to the presence of HMTA. HMTA was decomposed at the high temperature, thus amine and formaldehyde were released. Formaldehyde and urushiol was then condensed and result in the improvement on the properties of Chinese lacquer film. Compare to the unmodified lacquer film, the touch-free drying time was reduced from 130 min to 60 min, the gloss was increased, the alkali resistance was improved. Acid resistance, hardness and distinctness of image (DOI) was almost unchanged.

Use of THM-PY-GC/MS technique to characterize complex, multilayered Chinese lacquer

Use of micro-destructive analytical techniques to explore the complex matrix composition, structure and lacquering techniques of multilayer lacquered objects has been the focus of many researchers. This work presents the results of a comprehensive investigation of the “Tixi” carved lacquer micro-sample excavated from Zhejiang province in China (Song Dynasty, A.D. 960-A.D. 1279). Stereomicroscopy, EPMA-EDS, FTIR, μ-RS and THM-Py-GC/MS were used in a comprehensive study of the object. The results show that the structure of the lacquer body consists of one wooden body layer, one lacquer ash layer, one ground lacquer layer and four lacquer film pigment layers, which indicates that it has been lacquered for several times. The chemical composition analysis results show that the lacquer stucco layer was made from the ashes by“Wan lacquering” craft. The lacquer film was made up of pigment (soot (black layer), orpiment (yellow layer), cinnabar (red layer)), lacquer sap, heat-bodied tung oil and tannins (partial layer); the presence of the series of catechols, acid catechols, phenols, alkyl benzenes, and hydrocarbons in which each has a maximum side chain length of 17 carbons and the most abundant member has nine carbons clearly indicate the species of the lacquer tree was Rhus succedanea that produces laccol. “Tixi” carved craft was used to make different lacquer film pigment veins layers appear simultaneously to emerge its unique characteristics like “drifting clouds and flowing water”.

Materials and provenance determination of lacquerware from the Ryukyu Kingdom period by pyrolysis-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry and 87Sr/86Sr isotope ratio

Three wood chips found in a wooden coffin discovered in the Mumujyana graves of the Ryukyu Kingdom period were analyzed by pyrolysis-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS), and the 87Sr/86Sr isotope ratio of one piece was measured by multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry to determine the materials used to produce the lacquerware and their provenance. Results from the derivative Py-GC/MS indicate that the lacquer was produced from sap of both Toxicodendron vernicifluum, which grows in eastern Asia, and Toxicodendron succedaneum, which grows in southeastern Asia. The 87Sr/86Sr isotope ratios of the film layer and wooden base of one large chip, which is considered to be a stripped piece of the wooden coffin, were <0.710. The Sr concentration of the film layer, however, was 35.0 ppm, significantly higher than that of raw lacquer sap. It is possible that the Sr isotope ratios of the film layer reflect that of a black pigment observed by cross-section analysis. From the 87Sr/86Sr ratios of two parts of the chip, it is likely that the lacquer painting was done where the black pigment and wood were available. It is likely that the wooden coffin was constructed on the main islands of Japan. Meanwhile, the presence of a chip lacquered with Toxicodendron succedaneum demonstrates that the Ryukyu Kingdom had diverse trade relationships with surrounding countries.

Unveiling the potentials of biocompatible silver nanoparticles on human lung carcinoma A549 cells and Helicobacter pylori

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are gaining importance in health and environment. This study synthesized AgNPs using the bark extract of a plant, Toxicodendron vernicifluum (Tv) as confirmed by a absorption peak at 420 nm corresponding to the Plasmon resonance of AgNPs. The AgNPs were spherical, oval-shaped with size range of 2–40 nm as evident by field emission transmission electron microscopy (FE-TEM) and particle size analysis (PSA). The particles formed were crystalline by the presence of (111), (220) and (200) planes, as revealed by X ray diffraction (XRD) and energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). The presence of amine, amide, phenolic, and alcoholic aromatics derived from Tv extract was found to be capping and or reducing agents as evident by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) spectra. The Tv-AgNPs were observed to be biocompatible to chick embryonic and NIH3T3 cells at various concentrations. Interestingly, Tv-AgNPs at the concentration of 320 µg. mL−1 induced 82.5% of cell death in human lung cancer, A549 cells and further 95% of cell death with annexin V FITC/PI based apoptosis. The Tv-AgNPs selectively targeted and damaged the cancer cells through ROS generation. The Tv-AgNPs displayed minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 8.12 µg.mL−1 and 18.14 µg.mL−1 against STEC and H. pylori respectively. This multi-potent property of Tv-AgNPs was due to shape and size specific property that facilitated easy penetration into the bacterial and cancer cells for targeted therapy.

Antioxidant, Anti-Lung Cancer, and Anti-Bacterial Activities of Toxicodendron vernicifluum.

This work tested antioxidant, anti-lung cancer, and antibacterial activities by in vitro, in vivo, and computational experiments for the metabolites extracted from the bark, seed, and stem of Toxicodendron vernicifluum. The results showed that all the extracts significantly scavenged 1,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) in a dose-dependent manner. But, the total phenol content (TPC) ranged from 2.12 to 89.25% and total flavonoids content (TFC) ranged from 1.02 to 15.62% in the extracts. The methanolic bark extract (MBE) exhibited higher DPPH scavenging activity than the other extracts, probably due to the higher content of the TPC and TFC present in it. Among the extracts, only the MBE showed anti-lung cancer activity at an acceptable level with a therapeutic index value (22.26) against human lung carcinoma. This was due to the cancer cell death in A549 induced by MBE through reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, apoptosis, and cell arrest in G1 phase and inhibition of anti-pro-apoptotic protein survivin. Among the extracts, MBE showed significantly higher antibacterial activity as evident through the higher zone of inhibition 13 ± 0.5 mm against methycilin resistant strain of Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Salmonila enteria subp. enterica, and P. aeruginosa, 11 ± 0.3 mm against E. coli and 10 ± 0.2 mm against B. cereus. The MBE also showed an excellent antibacterial activity with lower minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC). Particularly, the MBE showed more significant antibacterial activity in MRSA. The in vivo antibacterial activity of the MBE was further tested in C. elegans model. The treatment of the MRSA induced cell disruption, damage and increased mortality of C. elegans as compared to the untreated and MBE treated C. elegans with normal OP50 diet. Moreover, the MBE treatment enhanced the survival of the MRSA infected C. elegans. The compounds, such as 2,3,3-trimethyl-Octane and benzoic from the MBE, metabolized the novel bacterial topoisomerases inhibitor (NBTI) and MRSA related protein (PBP2a). Overall the T. vernicifluum is potentially bioactive as evident by antioxidant, anti-lung cancer, and antibacterial assays. Further studies were targeted on the purification of the novel compounds for the clinical evaluation.

Changes of Phytochemical Components (Urushiols, Polyphenols, Gallotannins) and Antioxidant Capacity during Fomitella fraxinea⁻Mediated Fermentation of Toxicodendron vernicifluum Bark.

The stem bark of Toxicodendron vernicifluum (TVSB) has been widely used as a traditional herbal medicine and food ingredients in Korea. However, its application has been restricted due to its potential to cause allergies. Moreover, there is limited data available on the qualitative and quantitative changes in the composition of its phytochemicals during fermentation. Although the Formitella fraxinea-mediated fermentation method has been reported as an effective detoxification tool, changes to its bioactive components and the antioxidant activity that takes place during its fermentation process have not yet been fully elucidated. This study aimed to investigate the dynamic changes of urushiols, bioactive compounds, and antioxidant properties during the fermentation of TVSB by mushroom F. fraxinea. The contents of urushiols, total polyphenols, and individual flavonoids (fisetin, fustin, sulfuretin, and butein) and 1,2,3,4,6-penta-O-galloyl-β-D-glucose (PGG) significantly decreased during the first 10 days of fermentation, with only a slight decrease thereafter until 22 days. Free radical scavenging activities using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6- sulfonic acid) (ABTS), and ferric reducing/antioxidant power (FRAP) as an antioxidant function also decreased significantly during the first six to nine days of fermentation followed by a gentle decrease up until 22 days. These findings can be helpful in optimizing the F. fraxinea–mediated fermentation process of TVSB and developing functional foods with reduced allergy using fermented TVSB.

Extract of Rhus verniciflua Stokes Induces p53-Mediated Apoptosis in MCF-7 Breast Cancer Cells.

Rhus verniciflua Stokes has long been used as a food supplement and traditional herbal medicine for various ailments in East Asia. We evaluated the anticancer effects of Rhus verniciflua Stokes extract (RVSE) on MCF-7 cells by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assay, flow cytometry, annexin V/7-AAD staining, and western blotting. In addition, the gallic acid content of RVSE was assayed using high-performance liquid chromatography. RVSE inhibited the growth of MCF-7 cells in a dose-dependent manner by inducing apoptosis in the sub-G1 phase. RVSE also significantly increased the number of apoptotic cells and increased the expression of p53 and p21 in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, RVSE treatment increased the Bax:Bcl-2 ratio and the levels of apoptosis-related factors, such as cleaved caspase-3 and -9 and PARP, in MCF-7 cells. Our findings suggest that the proapoptotic effect of RVSE on MCF-7 cells is mediated by p53, p21, and the intrinsic mitochondrial cascade. Thus, RVSE shows promise for the prevention and treatment of breast cancer.

Topical film prepared with Rhus verniciflua extract-loaded pullulan hydrogel for atopic dermatitis treatment.

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is characterized by relapsing pruritus and skin dryness. Due to the pathogenic multiplicity and the adverse effects associated with the current therapeutics, development of transdermal drug delivery system is becoming an area of interest. Here, a novel topical film prepared with Rhus verniciflua extract (RVE)-loaded pullulan hydrogel (RVE@PH) was synthesized and tested its therapeutic efficacy on the AD rats modeled by neonatal capsaicin injection method. The RVE@PH was characterized by a Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and an in vitro release assay. Rat pups were randomly divided into two groups: vehicle-treated (VEH; n = 5) and capsaicin-treated (n = 15). The latter were given capsaicin subcutaneously at 24 h after birth for AD induction and further divided into three groups (n = 5 per each): not treated (CAP), pullulan hydrogel-applied (PH), and RVE@PH-applied (RVE-PH). The pullulan hydrogel and RVE@PH were topically applied on shoulder lesions for 14 days (from 42 to 56 days after birth). Their phenotypes were compared based on the dermatitis score, epidermal thickness, mast cell infiltration, and serum myeloperoxidase (MPO) activities. The PH group showed significant attenuation in all the aforementioned values compared to the CAP group, suggesting that pullulan hydrogel itself has therapeutic activity against AD. Notably, the attenuations were more potent in the RVE-PH group than the PH group, indicating that the therapeutic efficacy against AD is augmented by the presence of RVE, a loaded pharmaceutic. Collectively, these results indicate that RVE@PH inhibits AD through exerting the dual roles, that is, the pullulan hydrogel-mediated physical and RVE-mediated pharmaceutical actions. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part B: Appl Biomater 107B: 2325-2334, 2019.

The protective effects of vernicilignan A, a new flavonolignan isolated from Toxicodendron vernicifluum on SH-SY5Y cells against oxidative stress-induced injury

In this study, a new flavonolignan vernicilignan A was isolated from Toxicodendron vernicifluum. The neuroprotective effects of this compound against H2O2 induced cell injury in SH-SY5Y cells were evaluated by MTT assay and LDH release assay. Vernicilignan A dose-dependently attenuated the cell injury and LDH release induced by H2O2 in SH-SY5Y cells. Further study indicated that vernicilignan A reduced cell apoptosis caused by H2O2 treatment via regulation of some apoptotic related proteins including Bax, Bcl-2, caspase 3 and caspase 9. Also, vernicilignan A increase the cell viability of H2O2 treated cells via the activation of Akt and GSK3β. Base on the findings, vernicilignan A exhibited neuroprotective effects through the activation of PI3K/Akt signaling and inhibition of mitochondria apoptosis pathway. Vernicilignan A might be a promising therapeutic agent for oxidative stress induced neurodegenerative diseases.

N-glycans in Toxicodendron vernicifluum lacquer laccase

The N-glycans in Toxicodendron vernicifluum (Rhus vernicifera) lacquer laccase was elucidated for the first time through a combination of enzymatic digestion and subsequent mass spectrometry measurements using LC–MS/MS and MALDI–TOF MS. Lacquer laccase was isolated from a Japanese lacquer acetone powder from consecutive Sephadex C-50 and DEAE A-50 column chromatography. Trypsin and chymotrypsin digestions of the lacquer laccase resulted in a mixture of peptides and N-glycopeptides, which were treated with peptide-N-glycosidases and then Nα-(aminooxyacetyl)tryptophanylarginine methyl ester (aoWR) to give the aoWR-labelled N-glycans. The MS measurements revealed that GlcNAc4Hex5Fuc3Xyl1 N-glycan was attached at 12 N-glycosylation sites (Asn 5, 14, 180, 194, 233, 274, 284, 347, 364, 381, 398, and 519), GlcNAc3Hex4Fuc2Xyl1 N-glycan at two sites (Asn 124 and 454), and GlcNAc3Hex6Fuc1Xyl1 N-glycan at one site (Asn 28). A database search (Mascot search) of the peptides also suggested the presence of N-glycans at the 15 potential N-glycosylation sites (Asn-X-Ser/Thr).

Fungi associated with Cryphalus rhusi (Scolytinae; Coleoptera) infesting lacquer tree, Toxicodendron vernicifluum

ABSTRACTWe have examined the fungi associated with the scolytid bark beetle, Cryphalus rhusi, which infests the lacquer tree Toxicodendron vernicifluum. The fungi were also evaluated for pathogenicity in T. vernicifluum as a step toward clarifying the potential of the beetle for tree damage. Three fungal species, a Yamadazyma sp., a Fusarium sp., and Penicillium pinophilum were isolated from adult beetles that had emerged from branches. Of these, the Yamadazyma sp. appeared to be a close associate of the beetle, since it was isolated from all individuals used in the study, while the others were much less frequent. Pathogenicity tests revealed that the Fusarium sp. caused slightly larger lesions (by 2 mm) than the negative controls, whereas the Yamadazyma sp. did not cause any symptoms. We conclude that C. rhusi, with its associated fungi, is not likely to be a serious pest for T. vernicifluum.

The complete chloroplast genome of the Toxicodendron vernicifluum cv. Dahongpao, an elite natural triploid lacquer tree

The Toxicodendron vernicifluum cv. Dahongpao is an elite natural triploid lacquer tree with high economic and medicinal value. Therefore, in this study, we first characterize T. vernicifluum cv. Dahongpao complete chloroplast (cp) genome sequence. The complete cp genome sequence of T. vernicifluum cv. Dahongpao, with 38.0% GC content, is 159,571 bp in length. The genome presents a typical quadripartite structure with two inverted repeat regions (each 26,511 bp in length), separated by one large single-copy region and one small single-copy region (87,475 and 19,074 bp in length, respectively). The overall GC content is 38%, while in the LSC, SSC, and IR regions the GC contents are 36.1%, 32.6%, and 43.0%, respectively. The cp genome encodes 131 functional genes, of which 114 genes are single-copy, including 80 protein-coding genes, 30 tRNA genes, and 4 rRNA genes. Phylogenetic analysis using maximum likelihood (ML) strongly support that T. vernicifluum cv. Dahongpao has a close phylogenetic relationship with Rhus chinensis and Pistacia weinmaniifolia.

Two New Caffeoyl Threonate Esters from the Leaves of Toxicodendron vernicifluum

Toxicodendron vernicifluum, also called as Rhus verniciflua is a deciduous tree belonging to Anacardiaceae family. Two new caffeoyl threonate esters, rhuseols A (1) and B (2), together with 5-O-(E)- caffeoylquinic acid methyl ester (3) were isolated from the leaves of T. vernicifluum. The structures of isolated compounds were established by using 1D and 2D NMR in combination with HR-ESI-MS. Compounds 1 - 3 showed DPPH radical scavenging effects with IC50 values of 47.9, 107.8 and 15.4 μM, respectively. Taken together, these compounds might contribute to the antioxidant properties of the leaves of T. vernicifluum, which will be useful for various oxidative stress mediated diseases.

Rhus verniciflua and Eucommia ulmoides Protects Against High-Fat Diet-Induced Hepatic Steatosis by Enhancing Anti-Oxidation and AMPK Activation.

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a chronic liver disorder associated with features of metabolic syndrome and oxidative stress. We examined the mechanism by which the combined extracts of Rhus verniciflua and Eucommia ulmoides extracts (ILF-RE) regulate hepatic dyslipidemia in an established NAFLD model, high-fat diet (HFD)-induced lipid dysmetabolism in rats. ILF-RE attenuated alanine aminotransferase (ALT) by 1.5% , aspartate aminotransferase (AST) by 1.5% , triglycerides by 1.5% , cholesterol by 2.0% , and lipid peroxidation by 1.5% in the NAFLD model. ILF-RE, recently shown to have anti-oxidant properties, also inhibited hepatic ROS accumulation by 1.68% and regulated ER-redox imbalance, a key phenomenon of ER stress. Due to nutrient overload stress-associated protein folding, ER stress and downstream SREBP-lipogenic transcription signaling were highly activated, and the mTORC1-AMPK axis was also disturbed, leading to hepatic steatosis. ILF-RE results in recovery from hepatic conditions induced by nutrient-based protein folding stress signaling and the ER stress-SREBP and AMPK-mTORC1-SREBP1 axes. Based on these results, ILF-RE is suggested to be a potential therapeutic strategy for hepatic steatosis and may represent a promising novel agent for the prevention and treatment of NAFLD.

Chinese Porcelain Lacquer Painting Art : Primary Analysis on Convergence of Porcelain Decoration and Raw Lacquer

Chinese Porcelain Lacquer Painting Art : Primary Analysis on Convergence of Porcelain Decoration and Raw Lacquer

Research on the Application of New Materials in Contemporary Lacquer Painting

Lacquer painting is an art form with lacquer as the main media material. With the development of contemporary art, it has given new content. The lacquer painting's novel and changing materials make it rich in texture and unique in picture effects. Due to the fashionable aesthetic elements of contemporary lacquer painting, the emphasis is on the exploration and application of new materials. Different materials can produce different artistic effects, thus giving people different aesthetic feelings. The use of lacquer painting materials is not isolated. It is necessary to organically combine and coordinate the different characteristics of various materials according to its own aesthetic rules. This subject mainly analyzes the material characteristics, texture effects, and process characteristics of the new materials used in contemporary Chinese lacquer painting, analyzes the reasons for the emergence of new materials and their advantages, and discusses the aesthetic value of new materials in lacquer painting and its future development trends and prospects. The application of new materials in contemporary lacquer painting has been explored, the application scope of lacquer painting materials has been broadened, and the potential art law has been found, in order to provide effective application and theoretical support for the future creation and aesthetic development of lacquer painting art.

Manufacture and Characteristics of Oil-Modified Refined Lacquer for Wood Coatings

Oriental lacquer, a natural and renewable polymeric coating, comes from the sap produced by lacquer trees. For practical applications, oriental lacquer must be refined to reduce its water content and enhance its quality. In this study, drying oils were blended with oriental lacquer during a refining process to produce oil-modified refined lacquer (OMRL). Rhus succedanea lacquer, composed of 54.1% urushiols, 34.3% water, 7.2% plant gum, and 4.4% nitrogenous compounds, and drying oils, including tung oil (TO), linseed oil (LO), and dehydrated castor oil (DCO), were used as materials in this study. The effect of type and amount (0%, 10%, and 20% by wt %) of drying oils added to lacquer on lacquer properties were evaluated. Results show that the drying oils acted as a diluent, which reduced the viscosity, and enhanced workability, shortened touch-free drying time and accelerated the hardened drying of the OMRL. The results also indicated that the hardness, mass retention, Tg, tensile strength, abrasion resistance, and lightfastness of OMRL films decreased as more drying oils were blended with lacquer. Conversely, the bending resistance, elongation at break, impact resistance increased. Gloss was greatly improved through the blending of more drying oils with lacquer. In conclusion, the LO-modified refined lacquer (RL) had the highest film gloss and the DCO-modified RL had the shortest drying time for coating. Otherwise, the film properties were similar among the three types of drying oils.

Intestinal epithelial cell apoptosis due to a hemolytic toxin from Vibrio vulnificus and protection by a 36 kDa glycoprotein from Rhus verniciflua Stokes

Rhus verniciflua stokes (RVS) has been used as a functional food to cure inflammatory diseases in Korea. In the present study, we carry out an investigation of the cellular mechanism of a 36 kDa glycoprotein isolated from RVS fruit (RVS glycoprotein) during the apoptosis of human gastrointestinal epithelial HCT116 cells induced by the hemolytic toxin (VvhA) produced by V. vulnificus. Recombinant protein (r) VvhA produced by V. vulnificus stimulated apoptosis by activating the phosphorylation of protein kinase C (PKC) through the production of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS). However, RVS glycoprotein significantly inhibited the level of ROS production and PKC activation in rVvhA-stimulated HCT116 cells. Interestingly, we found that RVS glycoprotein has inhibitory effects on the phosphorylation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), which are responsible for the expression of Bax and cleaved caspase-3 in HCT116 cells treated with rVvhA, respectively. On the basis of these results, we suggest that RVS glycoprotein blocks mitochondrial apoptotic cell death induced by rVvhA via the inhibition of ROS-mediated signaling events in HCT116 cells.