Rhus Toxicodendron Research Articles

Studies on the Biological Activity of Rhus Striata III. Toxicity vs. Hypersensitivity of Dermal Reactions in Guinea Pigs to Rhus Striata (“Manzanillo”) Extracts

Like the American poisonous Rhus toxicodendron (poison ivy), the tropical tree Rhus striata (locally called ‘manzanillo') is now shown to elicit skin reactions both of toxicity and hypersensitivity in the guinea pig. The primary toxicity of Rhus striata is high in contact tests on the skin of animals. Hypersensitivity reactions develop rather early, reach a maximum within 24 to 48 hours and then fade rapidly. Although clear-cut differentiation is not easy to make between toxicity reactions and hypersensitivity reactions, in the case of manzanillo or poison ivy, the concentrations which elicit primary toxicity and sensitizing reaction of manzanillo can be determined by making comparative tests on normal guinea pigs and on specifically sensitized guinea pigs.

The action of Rhus tox. in rheumatology

The action of Rhus tox. in rheumatology

A clinical evaluation of the prophylactic treatment of poison ivy dermatitis with an alum-precipitated pyridine extract of rhus toxicodendron

S UBCUTANEOUS injections of an alum-precipitated pyridine extract of Rhus toxicodendron for prophylaxis of poison ivy dermatitis was first described by Strauss and Spain in 1946.l Many subsequent reports2V6 have confirmed its clinical usefulness. The series of relatively few painless injections produces only small local reactions, and is nonsensitizing. A unique opportunity was afforded this investigator to make a clinical evaluation of the alum-precipitated pyridine Rhus toxicodendron extract for the prophylaxis of poison ivy dermatitis in a group of 20 men who were employed daily in jobs of tree trimming, tree removal, and the installation of maintenance of gas and electric service in areas heavily infested with poison ivy. These men were thus directly exposed to the poison ivy plant or roots 5 days a week in contrast to the occasional exposure experienced by persons o,therwise employed. Although they had used general protective measures, such as showering with hot soapy water, frequent washing of their hands, rinsing with solvents, and wearing of gloves, each year these measures were found to be relatively ineffective and of limited value. In searching for another and more efficient method of protection, it was decided to use prophylactic treatments of the alum-precipitated pyridine extract of Rhus toxicodendron. The following clinical data represents two individual studies made in two consecutive years.

Hyposensitization against Rhus dermatitis.

This paper deals with immunologic prophylaxis of Rhus dermatitis due to Rhus radicans (poison ivy) and Rhus toxicodendron (poison oak). A comprehensive summary of the clinical biology of Rhus dermatitis has been given in a previous paper, which forms the prelude to the present theme.1 A striking feature of the literature on Rhus prophylaxis is the contradictory nature of many reports. Students of the subject hold diametrically opposed views. Some achieve remarkable results which are just as remarkably denied by others. Despite genuine advances in the basic knowledge of allergic contact dermatitis, the issue of hyposensitization is one in which there is no end of clinical testimony but relatively little in the way of objective research. Therapeutic ambitiousness has colored the picture with extravagant claims. The paramount aim of the present effort is to test the soundness of the concept of hyposensitization and

Racial and environmental factors in susceptibility to Rhus.

For reasons that are obscure at this time, certain dermatoses have racial or geographic peculiarities of distribution. The Negro is considered to be comparatively immune to basal-cell epitheliomas but particularly susceptible to the annular syphilid. Howard Fox, 1 after a study of 2200 Negroes and an equal number of whites, reached the conclusion that the Negro is less susceptible to external contacts. To quote his article of 1908: An example of lessened susceptibility to vegetable irritants is given by my statistics for poison by the Rhus toxicodendron, which showed 22 cases in the white against 8 in the black. While these figures show a much greater prevalence of ivy poisoning in the white, the disproportion in my opinion would have been much greater in a comparison of whites with full-blooded Negroes. In replying to the question, Is the Negro immune to ivy poisoning? the answer, I have

Acute glomerulonephritis following administration of Rhus toxin; report of a fatal and a near fatal case.

Administration of extracts of poison ivy for active treatment of the acute dermatitis caused by this plant has been widely practiced. It is the purpose of this report to call attention to a variety of reactions, particularly serious kidney damage, which may occur following this treatment. The plants which commonly produce this type of contact dermatitis belong to the family Anacardiaceae, and are Rhus Toxicodendron (poison ivy), Rhus diversiloba (poison oak), and Rhus Vernix (poison sumac). Local and general reactions have been reported in patients given prophylactic or active treatment, orally or by injection, with extracts of these substances. 1 Intramuscular injections for prophylaxis against future attacks may cause local reactions at the site of injection, as well as constitutional and cutaneous reactions. 2 Oral administration, in an attempt at hyposensitization, produces various types of localized and generalized eruptions, 3 stupor, convulsions, and hyperpyrexia. 4 In patients with acute dermatitis

A quantitative study of the relation of synthetic 3-pentadecyl catechol to hypersensitiveness to rhus toxicodendron (poison ivy) as shown by the patch test

1. 1. Sixty-two persons sensitive to the poison ivy plant were found to be sensitive to synthetic 3-pentadecyl catechol in concentrations of 1 per cent, or less, in acetone. This substance is the saturated analogue of the active ingredient causing poison ivy dermatitis. 2. 2. Quantitative studies in twenty-one subjects sensitive to poison ivy showed that a 0.1 per cent concentration of 3-pentadecyl catechol in acetone is suitable to detect those sensitive to the poison ivy plant, and probably also, related plants; however, for final evaluation a period of ninety-six hours of observation is requisite. The advantage of using this concentration is that severe reactions are eliminated for the most part. There are occasional instances in which, after ninety-six hours, a 1 per cent concentration may be used to reveal the exceptionally mildly sensitive patient who fails to react to a 0.1 per cent concentration. 3. 3. The advantages of using synthetic 3-pentadecyl catechol as a replacement for ground poison ivy leaves or extract in testing for hypersensitiveness to Rhus toxicodendron have been pointed out. It is suggested that in a suitable vehicle and concentration this substance may be used in an attempt to desensitize persons sensitive to the poison ivy plant and its congeners. 4. 4. The principle of group specific reactions is amply illustrated in the case of 3-pentadecyl catechol in its relation to the active ingredient in poison ivy dermatitis.

The value of the patch test in poison ivy dermatitis, with consideration of group reactions between rhus extract and turpentine, pyrethrum, ragweed oil and 3-geranyl catechol

1. 1. The results of my studies support the following more or less generally accepted opinions on the uses and limitations of the patch test in relation to poison ivy dermatitis: 1.1. a. Diagnostic: A positive patch test with a potent rhus extract does not prove the presence of dermatitis due to poison ivy, but simply indicates sensitization to the plant, past or present. The diagnostic value of the test is depreciated by the high incidence of positive reactions in the normal adult population. Perhaps greater diagnostic significance can be attributed to a positive test in children below the school age, but this general rule has exceptions. In my view a negative patch test eliminates past and present hypersensitiveness to Rhus toxicodendron; upon this point rests the chief value of the test in differential diagnosis of dermatitis due to poison ivy. No substantial evidence has been published, thus far, to indicate that a negative patch test occurs in persons who have become spontaneously or otherwise desensitized months or years after the attack of poison ivy dermatitis. 1.2. b. Therapeutic: The quantitative patch test is an important method of checking the value of treatment in this disease. 1.3. c. Prognostic: A positive patch test does not necessarily mean that the patient has had clinical dermatitis from poison ivy or will acquire it under ordinary conditions of exposure. The relation between the results obtained with the patch test and the acquisition of clinical disease depends probably on quantitative factors involving the degree of hypersensitiveness and the severity of exposure. Those showing positive patch tests are more apt to acquire a dermatitis from contact with rhus under ordinary conditions than those with negative patch tests, but the rule is not invariable; a relatively small number of adults in the United States who show negative patch tests may also subsequently develop hypersensitiveness to poison ivy with a clinical attack. A distinction should be made between immunity as indicated by a negative patch test and immunity as revealed by contact with the plant under ordinary conditions of exposure. There are apparently rare instances in which the most drastic methods of sensitizing the skin have failed to produce hypersensitiveness to poison ivy. 1.4. d. Experimental: The value of the patch test in experimental studies cannot be overstressed. 2. 2. Evidence is presented to show that there is no apparent biologic relation between hypersensitiveness to poison ivy and that to fresh turpentines of various types or to α- and β-pinene. Group reactions may be encountered with old specimens of turpentine, and it is assumed, although proof is lacking, that this may have been due to an increase in the phenolic fraction of turpentine. This problem needs further study. 3. 3. Evidence of a group relation between the active ingredient in poison ivy and pyrethrum or ragweed oil was not found. 4. 4. Evidence is presented to show, in substantiation of the work of Landsteiner and Jacobs in guinea pigs, that, in man, 3-geranyl catechol is biologically related to the active principle in poison ivy. Hypersensitiveness to 3-geranyl catechol seems to be dependent on the unsaturated geranyl group in combination with the catechol configuration.

The treatment of rhus poisoning by alcoholic extracts in a small group controlled by preliminary patch tests

1. 1. We feel that the prophylactic treatment consisting of hypodermic injections of alcoholic extract of Rhus toxicodendron have been quite satisfactory. 2. 2. The material given in gradually increasing doses did not cause any generalized eruption or any local discomfort. 3. 3. The annoying pruritus ani and perianal dermatitis were entirely lacking. 4. 4. No member of the group was incapacitated because of Rhus dermatitis.

The effect of some adsorbents, precipitants and oxidants upon the resin of rhus toxicodendron

The effect of some adsorbents, precipitants and oxidants upon the resin of rhus toxicodendron

SOME FEATURES OF THE STRUCTURE OF TOXICODENDRON DIVERSILOBA

EVERY AUTHOR of a system of classification has had to pass judgment, affirmatively or negatively, explicitly or by implication, upon an indefinitely large number of hypotheses as to the relationships of the included groups. One such hypothesis makes close allies of the families Anacardiaceae, Julianiaceae, and Juglandaceae. As to Anacardiaceae and Juglandaceae (the Julianiaceae being comparatively recently discovered and poorly known) this hypothesis is rather an ancient one: Jussieu (1789) listed Juglans under Terebintaceae (essentially the modern Anacardiaceae) not as a typical example but as one of several genera Terebintaceis affinia. We may confine further attention to systems recent enough to influence current opinion. Engler (1881) made a particular study of Anacardiaceae, and himself contributed to the Natuirlichen. Pflanzenfamilien the treatments of Anacardiaceae ( 1892) and Juglandaceae (1894). Of the latter he says, Von den Anacardiaceae, mit denen sie einzelne Autoren in verwandtschaftliche Beziehung bringen wollten, weichen sie in fast allen wichtigen Merkmalen, sowohl der Bi. wie des anatomisches Baues ab. Juliania appears in the Natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien as an unplaced genus; in the Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (1924) it constitutes a distinct family and order. In implied contradiction of Engler's emphatic. opinion, Bessey (1897) listed Juglandaceae immediately after Anacardiaceae; Hallier, after keeping the two families apart in earlier presentations of his system (1903, 1905), concluded (1908) that Juliania is an obvious link between them; and Hutchinson (1926) included Julianiaceae in Juglandales, placing this order almost immediately after Anacardiaceae. Wettstein (1924) also includes Julianiaceae in Juglandales, but sees no connection between this group and Anacardiaceae. Each of these authors has reached the conclusion which is in accord with his conception of the evolution of flowering plants; and it behooves no theoretical systematist to treat this as an offense. For a more certain judgment we need evidence beyond what is available. The Juglandaceae, indeed, being a small family, of temperate regions, and of considerable economic importance, have been studied intensively. Among other contributions, we have the study of the inflorescence by Manning (1938); of the wood by Heimsch and Wetmore (1939); of the root svstem by Woodroof and Woodroof (1934); of floral structure and embryogeny by Nawaschin (1895), Karsten (1902), Billings (1903), Nicoloff (1904, 1905 ), Benson and Welsford, (1909), Nawaschin and Finn (1913), Woodroof and Woodroof (1926, 1927, 1928, 1930), and Langdon (1939). The Anacardiaceae are a much more numerous and varied family, and are likewise of considerable economic importance; but being mostly tropical they are comparatively poorly known. Beside Engler's contribution (1881) we have 1 Received for publication July 27, 1940. a detailed study of Rhus diversiloba by McNair (1921a, 1921b). McNair cites several papers, which we have not seen, on the Japanese lacquer-producing species. There are scattered references to the structure of the wood. Aside from references to polyembryony in Mangifera, a matter of apparently no phylogenetic significance, the only embryological study is that of Grimm (1912) on Rhus Toxicodendron. The Julianiaceae, a small and economically insignificant family confined to Mexico and Peru, are known essentially only by the contributions of Hemsley (1906a., 1906b, 1908). The present contribution consists of a further study of the species upon which McNair worked. It is closely allied, a co-member of the subgenus or small genus Toxicodendron, with the species studied by Grimm. Material was collected from time to time during the years 1936 to 1940 in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada east of Sacramento, California. It was fixed in Bouin's fluid, imbedded, sectioned, and stained, in quite ordinary microtechnical fashion. On the many occasions when we have looked to points already accounted for by Grimm and McNair, we have essentially confirmed their work; as to the few significant points in which we do not confirm it, we have every reason to accept it. Meanwhile, we describe certain features which they overlooked.

EXPERIMENTS IN POISON IVY SENSITIVITY

Since the introduction of specific immunologic measures for the treatment or prevention of poison ivy dermatitis, the more than one hundred year old controversy as to their usefulness has continued, and no decisive answer is at hand even today. It appears that desensitization was first suggested by the American Indian practice of chewing the leaves of the poison ivy plant. Dakin,1in 1829, was probably the first medical authority to report the beneficial effects of specific desensitization. He stated that laborers and other persons chewed the leaves to gain immunity and that physicians advised that the forbidden fruit be eaten. Alumbaugh,2in 1898, half filled a vial with the buds or leaves of Rhus toxicodendron, poured into the flask enough alcohol or whisky to fill it completely and allowed this to stand for one day. He then made a third decimal dilution. Twenty drops of this were placed

A Dependable Remedy for the Poison Ivy Group

Although many substances have been suggested as remedies for poison oak (Rhus diversiloba T. and G.) and poison ivy (Rhus Toxicodendron L.), there is one above all others which because of the uniqueness of its discovery, the scientific proof of its action, and the abundant evidence for its efficacy should be of special interest to all sufferers from these plants. When the plant poison was obtained appreciably free from contamination it was found to consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. oxygen was found to be in the hydroxyl groups and not in carbonyl or carboxyl groups. Because of the presence of hydroxyl groups it was thought the principal constituent of the poison might contain a phenol group. poison of poison ivy and poison oak were found to give similar chemical tests (McNair 1923, p. 86). One of the tests for the presence of a phenol group consists of the addition of iron (ferric) chloride to a highly dilute alcoholic solution of the substance. If the phenol group is present the solution first turns green. Upon the further addition of sodium carbonate the green solution turns red. Upon the addition of more ferric chloride to the alcoholic solution of the poison the green solution turned black and finally a black precipitate was formed (MeNair 1921, 1923). When this solution as well as the black precipitate were placed on the skin of a person highly susceptible to poison oak no symptoms of poisoning occurred. use of iron chloride to the extent of five per cent in a half and half mixture of alcohol and water is recommended as a remedy. If the hands and face are bathed freely in this solution either before or immediately after one goes into a region known to contain poison ivy or its kindred plants, no ill effects need be expected. In order to eliminate the personal equation in regard to this remedy, the following experiences are given of Captain Fred C. Mills of the Boy Scouts of America and Major Thomas R. Marshall, U. S. Army Medical Corps, Retired. Last spring when I found I had been affected on the hands by ivy, I gave them an extra heavy dose of ferric chloride solution all over, went out and pulled up a bunch of poison ivy, broke it up and rubbed it thoroughly over both hands. Nothing happened. So, as far as I am concerned it is quite evident that this solution . . . is successful. I have used it a great deal on other people, and am delighted with its effectiveness. (Captain Fred C. Mills.) The undersigned has for years used tincture of ferric chloride (standard solution), by local application, both as a preventative and cure, in Rhus Toxicodendron poisoning, with uniform success. In his experience the treatment is specific, and should be used in all stages of the eruption; however, the earlier the better. While stationed at Fort Barraneas, Florida; Fort Scriven, Georgia; Fort Bragg, North Carolina; Camp Dix, New Jersey, and Fort Schuyler, New

PIGMENTATION FOLLOWING THE USE OF IRON SALTS

Iron salts have been used extensively in the treatment of ivy poisoning since White 1 in 1873 first called attention to their use. Ferric chloride is one of the chief means of combating the poison of Rhus toxicodendron. It was popularized by McNair 2 after Browning 3 advocated its use. This means of therapy has usually brought good results and no ill effects, as attested by numerous writers. 4 However, cases have been reported in which pigmentation of the skin occurred. This has always been considered permanent. Traub and Tennen 5 reported 2 cases, and Sutton 6 and Pusey 7 reported others. MacKee 8 observed 4 cases. In all, 8 cases have been recorded in the literature. These undesirable results, so far as can be determined, have not cooled the ardor with which ferric chloride has been employed in the treatment of ivy poisoning. The predominating impression that pigmentation is

The prophylaxis and treatment of poison ivy dermatitis with an extract of Rhus toxicodendron

The prophylaxis and treatment of poison ivy dermatitis with an extract of Rhus toxicodendron

A Method of Testing Guinea Pigs for Hypersensitiveness to Rhus toxicodendron.

Sensitization of guinea pigs to Rhus toxicodendron was reported by Rackemann and Simon,1 and has been repeated by a number of workers.2 For testing it has been customary to apply an acetone solution of the substance to the skin and to note differences in speed of appearance and intensity of reactions in treated animals and controls. While treated animals react more strongly to these extracts than untreated, the latter also give reactions which develop within 48 hours and make it difficult to interpret results. Recently, hypersensitiveness in guinea pigs was again studied by Ginsberg, Becker, and Becker3 who, attempting to overcome this difficulty, applied several dilutions of acetone extract in the tests. Straus,4 on the other hand, deeming the guinea pig unsatisfactory, used the Rhesus monkey which shows less irritation of normal skin; this finding has been utilized by Straus and Coca5 in further experiments.It seemed desirable to obtain a method of testing guinea pigs that would bring out more clearly d...

Prevention of dermatitis venenata due to poison ivy in children: A comparison of the value of the single and multiple injection methods

Every summer for the past several years, during the residence of one of us (M. M.) at the New Jersey State Home for Boys, a large group of the boys has contracted dermatitis venenata after contact with poison ivy (Rhus toxicodendron). Because of the abundance of the plant and the controlled environment, we thought it ideal to make a practical test of the efficacy of poison ivy extract for purposes of immunization. The product used was an alcoholic extract (1:50) of the poison ivy plant made according to the method of Spain and Cooke. 1 PATCH TESTS In order to select a group of subjects for study, patch tests were performed on, and histories were obtained from, 292 white boys, almost all of whom were between 12 and 16 years of age. Fourteen were between 8 and 11, and sixteen were between 17 and 18. One hundred boys were tested

DERMATITIS CAUSED BY DICTAMNUS ALBUS (GAS PLANT)

This report is made because Dictamnus albus is a rather commonly cultivated garden plant and we have been unable to find any mention of its irritating property in the literature. Furthermore, the requirement of the sun's rays to produce the irritation is of distinct interest. In July 1935 a man noticed an eruption on his forearms (fig. 1). Two days previously he had been working in his garden in the hot sun. Rhus toxicodendron was suspected as the cause, but the patient was certain that there was none in or near his garden. He remembered a similar outbreak on the skin which had appeared in the early summer two years previously. There was no eruption on the hands, but this was readily understood since gloves had been worn. Recalling a chance inquiry made some years previously as to whether or not the gas plant could irritate the skin (a question

PREVENTION OF DERMATITIS VENENATA DUE TO POISON IVY IN CHILDREN

Every summer for the past several years, during the residence of one of us (M. M.) at the New Jersey State Home for Boys, a large group of the boys has contracted dermatitis venenata after contact with poison ivy (Rhus toxicodendron). Because of the abundance of the plant and the controlled environment, we thought it ideal to make a practical test of the efficacy of poison ivy extract for purposes of immunization. The product used was an alcoholic extract (1:50) of the poison ivy plant made according to the method of Spain and Cooke. 1 PATCH TESTS In order to select a group of subjects for study, patch tests were performed on, and histories were obtained from, 292 white boys, almost all of whom were between 12 and 16 years of age. Fourteen were between 8 and 11, and sixteen were between 17 and 18. One hundred boys were tested

ON THE FATTY ACIDS OF JAPAN WAX.

Abstract The component fatty acids of a specimen of unbleached Japan wax, which contains no kernel oil, have been examined. In agreement with the description in fat literature, palmitic acid is, of course, the main component. Myristic acid and the lower homologues appear not to be present; volatile lower acids stated to occur in Japan wax by old investigators are undoubtedly decomposition products formed by bleaching process. On the other hand, stearic and arachidic acids occur in appreciable proportions. The unsaturated acids consist mostly of oleic acid. A small proportion of linolic acid is present. Hexadecenoic and linolenic acids are probably not present. It is difficult to mention the quantitative proportion of the individual acids, but rough approximation would be as follows: Palmitic acid 77%, stearic and arachidic acids 5%, oleic acid 12%, linolic acid small amount (less than 1%), dibasic acids 6%. The above proportion of stearic and arachidic acids would be rather high; in their relative amounts the former seems to predominate. It is interesting to observe that whereas myristic acid can not be detected in Japan wax obtained from Rhus succedanea, it occurs abundantly in the wax of “Tsutaurushi”, Rhus toxicodendron, var. vulgaris, a viny shrub belonging to the same genus Rhus. The free acids in Japan wax have nearly the same composition as the mixed acids of the wax, but oleic acid is present in a far larger proportion.