Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales Research Articles

The Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales: Measurement Invariance and Mean Comparison across United States and Iranian Children

The Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales: Measurement Invariance and Mean Comparison across United States and Iranian Children

Cortical Morphometry is Associated with Neuropsychological Function in Healthy 8-Year-Old Children.

Cortical development is essential for children's neurocognition. In this study, we evaluated how variations in cortical morphometry in normal children are associated with outcome differences in multiple domains of cognition. Eight-year-old children were recruited for a brain MRI followed by a battery of neuropsychological assessments. The MRI scan included 3D-T1-weighted imaging for cortical morphometry in 34 regions defined by the Desikan atlas. The neuropsychological assessments included the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales (RIAS) for IQ, Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals (CELF-4) for language, Children's Memory Scale (CMS) for memory, Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT-4) for academic skills, and Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) for executive functions. The relationships between MRI measured cortical features, including gray matter volume, surface area, and cortical thickness for different brain regions and neuropsychological test scores, were evaluated using partial correlation analyses controlled for age and sex. RIAS/CELF-4/CMS/WRAT-4/BRIEF scores showed significant correlations (R: [.38-.44], P: [.005-.046]) with gray matter volume, surface area, or cortical thickness in multiple brain regions. Gray matter volume in the medial orbitofrontal/ventromedial prefrontal cortex appeared to be a sensitive marker for overall neurocognition as it significantly correlated with IQ, language, memory, and executive function behaviors. The superior temporal gyrus and banks of superior temporal sulcus appeared to be most sensitive to reflect overall language function as their cortical features consistently correlated with language-related test scores. Cortical morphometry significantly correlated with neuropsychological function in healthy children; certain regions/features may serve as sensitive imaging markers.

The Relationship between Intelligence and Executive Functions in Hispanic Patients with Mild Traumatic Brain Injury

Executive functions have been described as the “brain of the brain” and to include a variety of processes, including, but not limited to, abstraction, formulation of intentions, reasoning, formulation of strategies, monitoring their success, working memory, and the self-regulation of behavior. Executive functions have been determined to be associated with the integrity of the frontal lobes. On the other hand, intelligence has also been described in similar terms, and the concept of general intelligence, or the g factor has also been associated with the frontal lobes. As constructs, intelligence and executive functions have been also described as “overlapping” in many features, while maintaining a certain degree of conceptual independence. The purpose of this study was to compare the intellectual functioning of a sample of patients with mild traumatic brain injury, obtained by means of the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales (RIAS), with their performance in a number of neuropsychological measures of executive functions, such as the Halstead Category Test (HCT), the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), the Stroop Word and Color Test (SWCT), and the Trail Making Test (TMT). Pearson Product Moment Correlations were obtained between the various measures of the RIAS and the measures of executive functions (HCT, WCST, SWCT, TMT). Whereas the magnitudes of the correlations were within the moderate range, intelligence, particularly non-verbal intelligence and working memory were noted to be significantly correlated with the measures of executive functions. The conclusion was reached that intelligence and executive functions are related to each other as constructs, but yet maintain a certain degree of independence.

The Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales: Measurement Invariance Across Four Language Groups

The Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales (RIAS) measures general intelligence and its two main components, verbal and nonverbal intelligence, each comprising of two subtests. The RIAS has been recently standardized in Denmark, Germany, Switzerland, and Spain. Using the standardization samples of the U.S. ( n = 2,438), Danish ( n = 983), German ( n = 2,103), and Spanish ( n = 1,933) versions of the RIAS, this study examined measurement invariance across these four language groups for a single-factor structure, an oblique two-factor structure with a verbal and nonverbal factor, and a bifactor structure with a general, a verbal, and a nonverbal factor. Single-group confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) supported the oblique two-factor and bifactor structure for each language group but not the single-factor structure. The bifactor analysis revealed that the general factor accounted for the largest proportion of common variance in each language group, while the amount of variance accounted for by the two specific factors was small and their reliabilities low. Multiple-group CFA supported scalar invariance in both, the oblique two-factor and bifactor structure.

The Predictive Validity of Four Intelligence Tests for School Grades: A Small Sample Longitudinal Study.

Intelligence is considered the strongest single predictor of scholastic achievement. However, little is known regarding the predictive validity of well-established intelligence tests for school grades. We analyzed the predictive validity of four widely used intelligence tests in German-speaking countries: The Intelligence and Development Scales (IDS), the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales (RIAS), the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal Intelligence Test (SON-R 6-40), and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV), which were individually administered to 103 children (Mage = 9.17 years) enrolled in regular school. School grades were collected longitudinally after 3 years (averaged school grades, mathematics, and language) and were available for 54 children (Mage = 11.77 years). All four tests significantly predicted averaged school grades. Furthermore, the IDS and the RIAS predicted both mathematics and language, while the SON-R 6-40 predicted mathematics. The WISC-IV showed no significant association with longitudinal scholastic achievement when mathematics and language were analyzed separately. The results revealed the predictive validity of currently used intelligence tests for longitudinal scholastic achievement in German-speaking countries and support their use in psychological practice, in particular for predicting averaged school grades. However, this conclusion has to be considered as preliminary due to the small sample of children observed.

Measurement Invariance and Latent Mean Differences in the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales (RIAS): Does the German Version of the RIAS Allow a Valid Assessment of Individuals with a Migration Background?

This study examined measurement invariance and latent mean differences in the German version of the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales (RIAS) for 316 individuals with a migration background (defined as speaking German as a second language) and 316 sex- and age-matched natives. The RIAS measures general intelligence (single-factor structure) and its two components, verbal and nonverbal intelligence (two-factor structure). Results of a multi-group confirmatory factor analysis showed scalar invariance for the two-factor and partial scalar invariance for the single-factor structure. We conclude that the two-factor structure of the RIAS is comparable across groups. Hence, verbal and nonverbal intelligence but not general intelligence should be considered when comparing RIAS test results of individuals with and without a migration background. Further, latent mean differences especially on the verbal, but also on the nonverbal intelligence index indicate language barriers for individuals with a migration background, as subtests corresponding to verbal intelligence require higher skills in German language. Moreover, cultural, environmental, and social factors that have to be taken into account when assessing individuals with a migration background are discussed.

A Review of the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales, Second Edition, and Reynolds Intellectual Screening Test, Second Edition

A Review of the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales, Second Edition, and Reynolds Intellectual Screening Test, Second Edition

When There’s More to the Story

When There’s More to the Story

A Scientist/Practitioner’s Perspective of the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales—Second Edition, by Cecil R. Reynolds and Randy W. Kamphaus (2015)

A Scientist/Practitioner’s Perspective of the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales—Second Edition, by Cecil R. Reynolds and Randy W. Kamphaus (2015)

Long-term Cognitive Implications of Intrauterine Hyperglycemia in Adolescent Offspring of Women With Type 1 Diabetes (the EPICOM Study)

Exposure to maternal diabetes in utero may have a negative impact on the developing brain. The objective was to examine long-term cognitive consequences of intrauterine hyperglycemia in adolescent offspring of women with type 1 diabetes and to ascertain a possible association with maternal HbA1c. Offspring of a prospectively followed cohort of women with type 1 diabetes (n = 277) participated in a follow-up examination at the age of 13-19 years. A control group from the background population was identified (n = 301). Cognitive function was evaluated using Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales and classified into indices of composite intelligence, verbal and nonverbal intelligence, and composite memory. Frequencies of reading and writing problems and attendance to classes for children with learning difficulties were assessed. Offspring of women with type 1 diabetes scored lower in all normalized and standardized intelligence indices compared with controls: composite intelligence (95.7 vs. 100, P = 0.001), verbal intelligence (96.2 vs. 100, P = 0.004), nonverbal intelligence (96.4 vs. 100, P = 0.008), and composite memory (95.7 vs. 100, P = 0.001). A higher frequency of diabetes-exposed offspring had parent-reported learning difficulties in primary school. Differences between groups remained after adjustment for confounders and potential mediators. We found no direct association between maternal HbA1c and offspring cognitive function in the exposed group. Adolescent offspring of women with type 1 diabetes had lower cognitive function compared with a control group, also after adjustment for confounders and potential mediators. These differences may reflect direct harmful effects of maternal diabetes on neurodevelopment in the offspring.

Testing Relations of Crystallized and Fluid Intelligence and the Incremental Predictive Validity of Conscientiousness and Its Facets on Career Success in a Small Sample of German and Swiss Workers.

This study examined the relation of fluid and crystallized intelligence with extrinsic (occupational skill level, income) and intrinsic (job satisfaction) career success as well as the incremental predictive validity of conscientiousness and its facets. Participants (N = 121) completed the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales (RIAS), the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R), and reported their occupational skill level, income, and job satisfaction. Results revealed that crystallized intelligence was positively related to occupational skill level, but not to income. The association of crystallized intelligence and job satisfaction was negative and stronger for the lowest occupational skill level, whereas it was non-significant for higher levels. Fluid intelligence showed no association with career success. Beyond intelligence, conscientiousness and its facet self-discipline were associated with income, whereas conscientiousness and its facets competence and achievement striving were associated with job satisfaction. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for the assessment process as well as for future research to adequately predict career success.

Voxel-Based Morphometry and fMRI Revealed Differences in Brain Gray Matter in Breastfed and Milk Formula-Fed Children.

Infant diets may have significant impact on brain development in children. The aim of this study was to evaluate brain gray matter structure and function in 8-year-old children who were predominantly breastfed or fed cow's milk formula as infants. Forty-two healthy children (breastfed: n = 22, 10 boys and 12 girls; cow's milk formula: n = 20, 10 boys and 10 girls) were studied by using structural MR imaging (3D T1-weighted imaging) and blood oxygen level-dependent fMRI (while performing tasks involving visual perception and language functions). They were also administered standardized tests evaluating intelligence (Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales) and language skills (Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals). Total brain gray matter volume did not differ between the breastfed and cow's milk formula groups. However, breastfed children had significantly higher (P < .05, corrected) regional gray matter volume measured by voxel-based morphometry in the left inferior temporal lobe and left superior parietal lobe compared with cow's milk formula-fed children. Breastfed children showed significantly more brain activation in the right frontal and left/right temporal lobes on fMRI when processing the perception task and in the left temporal/occipital lobe when processing the visual language task than cow's milk formula-fed children. The imaging findings were associated with significantly better performance for breastfed than cow's milk formula-fed children on both tasks. Our findings indicated greater regional gray matter development and better regional gray matter function in breastfed than cow's milk formula-fed children at 8 years of age and suggested that infant diets may have long-term influences on brain development in children.

B-103Validity of the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales Memory Index Scores in a Sample of Children with Brain Injuries

B-103Validity of the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales Memory Index Scores in a Sample of Children with Brain Injuries

Above-Level Test Item Functioning Across Examinee Age Groups

Above-level testing (also called above-grade testing, out-of-level testing, and off-level testing) is the practice of administering to a child a test that is designed for an examinee population that is older or in a more advanced grade. Above-level testing is frequently used to help educators design educational interventions for gifted children, especially those who may be candidates for grade skipping or Talent Search programs. However, little research has been conducted on how test items function when administered to a younger population, despite professional standards that require examiners to gather validity evidence when administering a test for a new population. In this article, we explain two studies in which we compared item functioning across two populations of examinees: gifted middle school students and older examinees that the tests were designed for. Results from Study 1 indicated a high correlation between item difficulty statistics for both groups on the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills. Results from Study 2—a mixed-methods study—showed that even though the two groups were similar in ability (as measured by the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales), the high school students completed SAT-M test items more quickly and demonstrated more familiarity with the test content. In both studies, test items generally operate similarly for the two age groups. However, important local curriculum and individual educational history may cause some items to operate differently when administered above level.

Invariance in the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales for Black and White referred students.

An important part of validity evidence for a test's scores is that they are invariant-measuring the same constructs the same way across different groups. Although published a decade ago, no independent investigation of invariance has been conducted on the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales (RIAS). In the current study, we investigated invariance of the RIAS's measurement of general cognitive ability (g) between Black and White students who were referred for special education services. Results indicated that the subtest scores showed strict invariance, but g's variance was not the same across groups. Specifically, the White group exhibited a higher mean (d = 0.60) and almost twice the variability in g as the Black group did. Thus, although the between-group mean differences in subtest scores and the Composite Intelligence Index are due to between-group differences in g, the Black group used a narrower range of g than the White group did in answering the RIAS items.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales (RIAS) in Canadian Children

The purpose of the current study was to assess the validity of the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scale’s (RIAS) index and subtest scores by examining whether the RIAS conforms to Carroll’s (1993) three-stratum theory of cognitive ability and the Cattell-Horn Gf-Gc (Horn & Cattell, 1966) theory of intelligence upon which it was based. Factor structures of RIAS scores from typically developing (n = 187) and mixed clinical groups (n = 164), 4–18 years old, were compared using confirmatory factor analysis. The results were mixed, with some findings supporting the validity of the Composite Intelligence Index (CIX), Nonverbal Intelligence Index (NIX), and Verbal Intelligence Index (VIX) while others suggested that the CIX and NIX in particular should be interpreted with caution, depending on the population in which the RIAS is being used. The functioning of the two nonverbal subtests in all analyses suggested that the RIAS’s nonverbal subtests are most problematic, with the greatest impact on the RIAS’s validity as a measure of overall, verbal, and nonverbal intelligence. The RIAS’s use as a general cognitive screener is supported but caution is recommended if the RIAS is being used to make important diagnostic, qualification for services, forensic, or placement decisions.

EXAMINER ERRORS ON THE REYNOLDS INTELLECTUAL ASSESSMENT SCALES COMMITTED BY GRADUATE STUDENT EXAMINERS

Protocols from 108 administrations of the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales were evaluated to determine the frequency of examiner errors and their impact on the accuracy of three test composite scores, the Composite Ability Index (CIX), Verbal Ability Index (VIX), and Nonverbal Ability Index (NIX). Students committed at least one administration, scoring, or recording error on 98% of protocols and averaged 7.53 errors per protocol. Administration errors were most common on VIX subtests (Guess What and Verbal Reasoning), whereas recording errors occurred most frequently on NIX subtests (Odd Item Out and What's Missing). Error correction and rescoring resulted in changes to all three index scores, although VIX and CIX changed most frequently.

Validity of the RIAS for Assessing Children With Traumatic Brain Injury: Sensitivity to TBI and Comparability to the WISC-III and WISC-IV

Intelligence tests are commonly administered to children following moderate-to-severe traumatic brain injury (TBI). The Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales (RIAS) is a recently developed measure of intellectual ability that has a number of appealing features for assessing individuals with brain damage, but as yet has little validity information when applied to children with TBI or other forms of brain injury. It is therefore unclear whether RIAS scores are sensitive to brain injury and how they compare to older more well-established tests such as the Wechsler scales. The current article reports two studies that examine these matters in youth with TBI. The first study examined sensitivity of the RIAS to TBI in 110 children. Results indicated the TBI sample performed significantly worse compared with the standardization sample on all RIAS index scores. The second study included 102 children who were administered either the RIAS, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition (WISC-III), or WISC-Fourth Edition (WISC-IV; 34 children in each group). Comparisons among the RIAS, WISC-III, and WISC-IV groups indicated no significant differences among the measures on verbal, nonverbal, and Composite Index/Full-Scale IQs. Results provide support for the sensitivity of the RIAS to TBI in children and also suggest that IQs produced by the RIAS, WISC-III, and WISC-IV do not significantly vary from one test to the other, which is particularly true of the verbal and Composite Index/Full-Scale IQs.

Examination of the structural, convergent, and incremental validity of the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales (RIAS) with a clinical sample.

Empirical examination of the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales (RIAS; C. R. Reynolds & R. W. Kamphaus, 2003a) has produced mixed results regarding its internal structure and convergent validity. Various aspects of validity of RIAS scores with a sample (N = 521) of adolescents and adults seeking psychological evaluations at a university-based clinic were examined. Results from exploratory factor analysis indicated only 1 factor, and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) indicated that the 1-factor model was a good fit and a better fit than the 2-factor model. Hierarchical factor analysis indicated the higher order, general intelligence factor accounted for the largest amount of variance. Correlations with other measures of verbal/crystallized and nonverbal/fluid intelligence were supportive of the convergent validity of the Verbal Intelligence Index but not the Nonverbal Intelligence Index. Joint CFA with these additional measures resulted in a superior fit of the 2-factor model compared with the 1-factor model, although the Odd-Item-Out subtest was found to be a poor measure of nonverbal/fluid intelligence. Incremental validity analyses indicated that the Composite Intelligence Index explained a medium to large portion of academic achievement variance; the NIX and VIX explained a small amount of remaining variance. Implications regarding interpretation of the RIAS when assessing similar individuals are discussed.

Level of Depression in Intellectually Gifted Secondary School Children

The purpose of the present research was to investigate the difference in depression between intellectually gifted and non-gifted secondary school children. After a detailed review of literature the following hypothesis was formulated; there would be a significant difference between intellectually gifted and non-gifted secondary school children on variables ((i.e., Dysphoric Mood, Anhedonia/Negative Affect, Negative Self-Evaluation, Somatic Complaints) of depression. A sample of 197 7th through 10th grade school children, belonging to the middle and upper socioeconomic status and recruited from different private sector secondary schools of Karachi, included 93 (47.20 %) children intellectually gifted (IQ = 130 and above) and 104 (52.80 %) non-gifted secondary school children (IQ of 90 -109). The children ranged in age from 12 years to 16 years (Mean age = 14.09 years). Measures used included the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales (RIAS; Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2003) and the Reynolds Adolescent Depression Scale (RADS-2; Reynolds, 2002) to assess intellectual functioning and levels of depression respectively. Analysis of data showed significant differences. Specifically relatively low levels of Anhedonia/Negative Affect, Negative Self-Evaluation and depression in intellectually gifted secondary school children compared with non-gifted secondary school children.