Revolution In England Research Articles

Redefining Family Relationships: The Impact of Disability on Working-Class Families during the Industrial Revolution in Britain

The Industrial Revolution traditionally has been seen in Disability Studies as marking a decisive shift in the lives of disabled people. It is argued that the rise of mechanisation, time discipline and standardisation made the industrial workplace a hostile environment for people with non-standard bodies. According to this view, increasing demands to work outside the home also meant that families were less capable of caring for older and disabled members, leading to greater institutionalisation. This view of increasing segregation of disabled people from home and work has dominated understanding of disability in the British Industrial Revolution, but it does not reflect the variability of disabled people's experiences at the time. Drawing on official enquiries, fictional literature, journalism and social commentary from the 1830s and 1840s – a time when the impact of industrialisation on the bodies and family relationships of workers became matters of public, political concern – this article shows the continuing importance of family in the lives of disabled people. The legal duty of families to care for sick and disabled relatives was an enduring social principle throughout this period. Interpersonal relations were tested and sometimes re-drawn by disability, forcing a change in traditional familial roles and expectations. For working people and their families, the potentials for poverty resulting from disability could be great. However, disabled people continued to play significant roles in the lives of their families, and where possible continued to contribute to the domestic economy. Taking a disability perspective on the history of the family highlights the interdependence between family members in industrialising Britain.

BRITISH WOMEN’S SUPERIORITY TOWARDS SOCIAL CLASS STRATIFICATION IN POST INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION ERA IN JANE AUSTEN’S EMMA

Industrial revolution in Britain has fragmented people into a certain social class stratification namely; upper, middle, and lower class as reflected in Jane Austen’s novel Emma. This paper is aimed at analyzing relationship between characters especially women in novel Emma and people’s manner, attitude, way of thinking, view of life, social perception tendency in postindustrial revolution era in which the novel is written. Emma, Miss Taylor, and Miss Hawkins are representation of the British middle-class women who steadily keeps social limitation to show their existence in community by placing their social status as reference in socializing and interacting with other people. The higher social status people tend to adore and defy their position excessively by despising the lower class. As a result of this, they turn to be superior, more self-important people if they meet the lower-class ones in a social interaction.

White privilege and professionalization: a decolonial and critical feminist perspective on professional nursing

This article offers a critical perspective linking invisibility with the political foundations of the dominant, Eurocentric model of modern nursing. Using critical feminist and decolonial feminist frameworks, this paper begins by analyzing gendered, reproductive labor in the centuries leading up to the industrial revolution in Britain and Europe and how the current dominant model of nursing was developed. The second part of the paper suggests a critical link between white supremacy, colonial violence and the professionalization of nursing work. Finally this paper calls on nursing scholarship to move beyond the narrow definition of nursing within the professional framework to include people who have done and continue to do the work of nursing despite being denied the title because of segregation and colonial violence.

The concept of Revolution in 17th century England and translations from Latin of William Camden's «Britannia»

The article examines the evolution of the idea of the revolution in England in the 17th century. This evolution can be outlined in how the word ‘revolution’ was being employed in translating from Latin William Camden’s ‘Britannia’. Two translations done – one at the start and the other at the close of the century – allow tracing the semantic change that occurred in the usage of the word ‘revolution’ on the course of the century. This evolution changes the meaning of the word and pushes it closer to modern understanding of ‘revolution’ as an event of considerable social and political significance and change. An attempt is made to explain why exactly this word came to denote one of the key events of Modern history. The word ‘revolution’ was being widely used in England of the late sixteenth – early seventeenth century and served to connect everyday secular and mundane ideas and notions to heavenly, more elevated level. The character of the employment of the word provided for the possibility of its secularisation and direct social and political usage. Particular stages of this process are shown by the analysis of its role in the English translations of various concepts and ideas of original Latin text by William Camden.

History of Handloom Industry in Assam with special reference to Sualkuchi

The Handloom Industry plays a vital role in the socio – economic structure of Assam in terms of providing employment and production of clothes. At the same time preserve and propagate the rich cultural heritage of Assam. Weaving in Assam is as old as human civilization itself and the art of weaving are being passed from one generation to the next. The existence of high-quality weaving skill and production of fine textiles is well documented in great epics like Mahabharata and ancient treatise like Arthashastra1of Kautilya (Choudhry, 1987). Chinese traveler Hiuen Tsang also gives rich description of existence of high-quality weaving products and their general liking of the Royal family and the nobility. Writing is the early 19th century, before the British annexed Assam, Francis Hamilton2 has given an accurate account of the state of weaving in Assam (Sarma, 2012). This Industry was directly patronized by the state, so much so that queens established weaving schools in the palace, to teach the art of weaving to the daughters of the noble widows and other female members of the household of executed prisoners were also employed by the art for spinning and weaving as a means of subsistence. The neo – vaishnavite movement of the Shri Sankardev was an equally potent force in the development in the art of weaving, especially of figured cloth. After annexation of Assam by the British3, the Handloom industry declined rapidly particularly in cities. Another British policy of de – industrialization of Assam, instead of export of cotton clothes and silk products, Assam became export of raw cotton and cocoon to fuel the Industrial Revolution in Britain. Despite, dwindling of textile weaving like all other arts with the fall of the Ahom rule, it never became extinct as many other branches of Assamese art. It is still a living art as much in demand as it had been in the medieval period (Goswami, 2012)

That Unexpected Margin of Capital

Abstract For many years, a weapon in the armory of those advocating for Eric Williams’s thesis that the profits from slavery helped finance the Industrial Revolution in Britain has been a speech made by Winston Churchill making that very point. Williams himself referred to the speech in 1942, as did George Padmore in 1953, but neither provided chapter and verse. Subsequently, a whole raft of commentators has followed suit, but always only via a reference to Williams or Padmore. This research note provides the original date and context for Churchill’s words.

That Unexpected Margin of Capital

Abstract For many years, a weapon in the armory of those advocating for Eric Williams’s thesis that the profits from slavery helped finance the Industrial Revolution in Britain has been a speech made by Winston Churchill making that very point. Williams himself referred to the speech in 1942, as did George Padmore in 1953, but neither provided chapter and verse. Subsequently, a whole raft of commentators has followed suit, but always only via a reference to Williams or Padmore. This research note provides the original date and context for Churchill’s words.

Babel; or The Necessity of Violence: An Arcane History of the Oxford Translators' Revolution by R. F. Kuang

Reviewed by: Babel; or The Necessity of Violence: An Arcane History of the Oxford Translators' Revolution by R. F. Kuang Rachel S. Cordasco R. F. KUANG Babel; or The Necessity of Violence: An Arcane History of the Oxford Translators' Revolution New York. Harper Voyager. 2022. 560 pages. GIVEN THE SUBTITLE of this alternate-history novel about language, translation, colonialism, and war, one would be forgiven for spending most of one's time analyzing each of the novel's events to gauge whether or not said violence will indeed be necessary. It is this kind of leading (or perhaps distracting) element that mars what is otherwise a unique, if not wholly convincing, take on what the Industrial Revolution in Britain would have wrought had silver, rather than steam and other technologies, driven innovation. In R. F. Kuang's take on early nineteenth-century England, translators, rather than inventors, are the major force behind industrial innovations, with bridges, factories, banks, carriages, and more operating at beyond-peak efficiency thanks to pairs of silver bars activated by language. For example, a silver bar with the Chinese word wuxing ("formless, shapeless, incorporeal") engraved on one side and the English word invisible on the other could be activated if both words are spoken aloud by someone fluent in both languages—thus the speaker would be able to hide from view for several minutes. Throughout England, such bars are buried in gardens to facilitate growth and beauty, installed in bridges to strengthen them, placed in boats to expedite travel, all to improve British lives. Of course, upperclass Britons reap many more of the benefits of silver than the working class and poor, many of whom were thrown out of jobs as the Industrial Revolution passed them by. Into this world of translation and silver come four Oxford students (Robin, Ramy, Victoire, and Letty) who have been admitted to the prestigious translation program at a tower called Babel. Within this structure, professors and students work on using ancient and modern languages to plumb the depths of "match-pairs" to keep industry humming. [End Page 85] Wealthy and powerful, thanks to this magical silver, Britain has amped up its colonial program by the 1830s, focusing especially on China, due to its silver. As Robin and his friends eventually learn, China's resistance to Britain's pursuit of its silver through opium trafficking (Kuang's reference to the Opium Wars of the mid-nineteenth century) will eventually lead to war, which Britain will likely win. Robin, Ramy, and Victoire are especially concerned because they see themselves as pawns in this colonial game, used for their fluency in Chinese, Arabic, Kreyol, and other languages. As natives of China and India, Robin and Ramy resent how differently they are treated by white Britons (Victoire, as a black Frenchwoman, feels the same). Robin soon meets a half-brother he never knew he had—one who works for a clandestine organization that siphons off Babel translators to work against the British colonial program. Griffin insists that violent resistance is the answer and eventually steers Robin to the same conclusion, one that will (as Robin admits) disproportionately hurt lower- and middle-class Britons who won't be able to escape their cities once sanitation collapses, bridges fall, and food can no longer find its way to markets. The goal, though, is to stop Britain's secret planned invasion of China—planned, that is, by the heads of Babel and not the British government (think India and the British East India Company). Babel is creative in its exploration of the power of language and how translators can be used both to bring the people of the world together and to exploit other countries in pursuit of colonialist domination. Nonetheless, the novel often becomes bogged down in discussions about exploitation and injustice that would be better communicated by a more dynamic plot. The footnotes that Kuang includes are interesting asides, except when they, once again, tell instead of show. Ultimately, Babel offers an intriguing take on an Industrial Revolution driven by silver and language, and its fluid mix of actual and fictional history make it a compelling read. Rachel S. Cordasco Madison, Wisconsin Copyright © 2023 World...

David McKitterick. Readers in a Revolution: Bibliographical Change in the Nineteenth Century

This deeply researched and engaging book from David McKitterick is very much a continuation of his previous book The Invention of Rare Books: Private Interest and Public Memory, 1600–1840 (Cambridge, 2020). McKitterick’s focus segues in Readers in a Revolution: Bibliographical Change in the Nineteenth Century to ensuing developments in attitudes and access to old books during the period, with particular attention to England and France between the 1830s and 1890s. Book historians have focused on changes to the materiality of the book during this period, stemming from technological innovations that impacted its production, dissemination, and accessibility to readers. The socio-cultural impact of the Industrial Revolution in Britain in particular underlies this study. While McKitterick spends some time on shifts in literacy, changes in available leisure time for the working classes, and the cultural pursuits made possible by the public libraries movement and increased opening hours for museums and galleries, his focus here is the acquisition of books, particularly those classified as rare, amongst the great variety of collectors in mid-nineteenth-century Britain.

THE ROLE OF COOPERATIVE SOCIETY IN IMPROVING FARMERS LIVELIHOOD IN NIGER STATE, NIGERIA

The cooperative was formed as a result of human sufferings and degradation during the industrial revolution in England. The social impact of the revolution was pronounced and largely felt by the common man who needed to improve their conditions of living that had deteriorated to an inhuman standard. The study is set out to describe socio economics characteristics of the cooperators and the various cooperative societies as well as the role cooperative society play in improving the livelihood of cooperators in the study area. The study was conducted in Lapai Local Government area of Niger State. Purposive selection of five villages: Eshi, Kuchi, Gulu, Ebbo, and Puzhi was due to the predominant of cooperative societies in these villages. A total of 90 respondents were randomly selected from sampled communities. Primary and Secondary data were used with the aid of a structured interview scheduled. Data collected were analyzed using the descriptive statistics, Likert-type scale and binary logistic regression model. The result revealed that majority of the respondents 77.8% are within the age of ≤60, married and literate with farming experience of about 30 years. More than half 64% of the respondents belonged to a cooperative society with mean years of about 8. Majority of the cooperators 81% belonged to producer cooperative society. The strong bargaining power has a mean score of 3.14 which is greater than the neutral point and is therefore accepted.

Foreigner kings as local kingmakers: how the ‘unusual’ marginalization of conservative political groups occurred in pre-Industrial Revolution Britain

AbstractBuilding on the Hodgson–Mokyr debate in this journal (Volume 18, Issue 1, 2022), this article discusses how modern economic growth occurred in pre-Industrial Revolution Britain, with a particular focus on coalition politics and the marginalization of conservative political groups – vetoers to change. Such political marginalization was unusual before the 19th century, when monarchs had substantial political power and land-based conservative groups were their main political allies. This article finds the source of the English exceptionalism in the unique system of non-imperial personal union that Britain then had with the Dutch Republic and Hanover. Under this system, foreigner monarchs chose their local ally in Britain based on the security needs of their home states. It created a significant disadvantage to the Tories, the incumbent conservative groups, while providing a window of opportunity for the Whigs, the opposition group supported by new commercial interests, to form a coalition with the Crown. The long absence of the Tories from power resulted in the incorporation of their constituencies into the Whig-led regime, making the traditional economic interests the regime's ‘junior partners’, instead of formidable political competitors to the new commercial interests, which was the case before and elsewhere at that time.

The Democratic Movement in the World

This study is related to the democratic movement in the world. The research focuses on the role of the democratic movement and its impact on today for human civilization. This study is prepared about the democratic movement, its achievements, and the essential foundations for democracy. It examines democratic movements from the Magna Carta, the bloodless revolution in Britain, and American independence to the French revolution. The research is reached in conclusion with an attempt to investigate the question of what effect the democratic movement has had on the transformation of the modern era. There were various efforts for the establishment of democracy during the political changes. This is also true that there is standing in the face of problems and challenges from institutionalizing its achievements. Research is focused on democratic movements and their achievements. This study is completely qualitative research in nature. Only secondary material has been used in the study and the available data has been taken out using descriptive and analytical methods.

When the Air Became Important: A Social History of the New England and Lancashire Textile Industries by Janet Greenlees

Reviewed by: When the Air Became Important: A Social History of the New England and Lancashire Textile Industries by Janet Greenlees David Rosner Janet Greenlees. When the Air Became Important: A Social History of the New England and Lancashire Textile Industries. Critical Issues in Health and Medicine. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2019. xiv + 250 pp. Ill. $50.95 (978-0-8135-8796-7). In the early 1840s Charles Dickens, perhaps the singular English author giving voice to the horrifying realities of lower class urban life in England, toured the United States to understand the new republic and the people who had broken away from Empire only a few decades before. He made a special stop in Lowell, Massachusetts, one of the new textile mills organized to process the cotton that the slave-based South was pouring into the world economy. He was deeply aware of the importance of the cotton to the textile industry as it was the backbone of the industrial revolution in England where working people drawn to Manchester, Lancaster, Leeds and other cities were suffering from low wages and horrifying living conditions in what William Blake had dubbed “satanic mills.” What Dickens found in Lowell was a world apart from that he observed in the English mill towns. Dickens expected a dispirited workforce living in similar horrid conditions. Yet, in Lowell, the mills he observed were remarkably clean and tidy. “The rooms in which they worked, were as well ordered as themselves. In the windows of some, there were green plants, which were trained to shade the glass; in all, there was as much fresh air, cleanliness, and comfort, as the nature of the occupation would possibly admit of.” The young women who worked there appeared healthy and happy. “Out of so large a number of females, many of whom were only then just verging upon womanhood, it may be reasonably supposed that some were delicate and fragile in appearance: no doubt there were.” But he was at a loss to find them. “I solemnly declare, that from all the crowd I saw in the different factories that day, I cannot recall or separate one young face that gave me a painful impression; not one young girl whom, assuming it to be a matter of necessity that she should gain her daily bread by the labour of her hands, I would have removed from those works if I had had the power.”1 By the turn of the twentieth century, the halcyon days of happy workers and clean, tidy workplaces and living quarters were gone in the New England mill [End Page 165] towns, as they were in the British textile industry as well. By the time of the famous Lawrence textile strike of women made famous by the poem put to song, “Bread and Roses,” the towns were among the most unhealthful in the country. Fall River, Massachusetts had “gained the infamous distinction of having the highest death rate of any northern U.S. city, surpassing that of New York City and the Lancaster mill towns” of northern England. Chief among the diseases and causes of death in these once-salubrious towns was consumption, a collection of symptoms that were sometimes caused by the tubercle bacillus and, in some industrial sites, seen to be caused by the dust laden air created by a host of new water and steam-powered devices that produced huge amounts of dust in confined spaces that workers breathed in. Water driven looms, steam-powered drills and chippers, lung diseases of various forms came to dominate the lives and deaths of workers in textile mills, mines, quarries, foundries, steel mills, brick factories, and a host of other worksites central to the emerging industrial, urbanizing society. Silicosis in the quarries and foundries, asbestosis in the growing auto and brake industries, construction and insulation trades, and, most relevant to Greenlees’s story, byssinosis in the textile mills began to seep into medical and politicians’ consciousness. Heat and humidity in plants driven by coals, steam, electricity, oil and various forms of power, all contributed to a singularly unhealthful work environment. When the Air Became Important traces the history of consciousness of disease...

The Huguenot Global Diaspora

The Huguenot Global Diaspora Rebecca K. McCoy (bio) Owen Stanwood, The Global Refuge: Huguenots in an Age of Empire. New York: Oxford University Press, 2020. xii + 300 pp. Notes and index. $40.95. Owen Stanwood's examination of the Huguenot refuge follows the historiographical trend of placing events, once viewed mainly as European, in a global context. Many studies have examined the impact of the Huguenots in specific national contexts in Europe: Switzerland, the Netherlands, the German states, and England. Others have focused on the Huguenot diaspora in specific regions of overseas empires, including the American colonies and South Africa.1 Edited volumes have addressed the issue of integration by including nation- or colony-specific articles but offer little direct comparison.2 Another approach that does move beyond national borders has been analyses of Huguenot networks, such as financial, mercantile, or familial networks.3 Stanwood integrates these approaches into an account that emphasizes the connections among the Huguenots "on the edges of empire" as well as within Europe. Stanwood sets his research in the context of an age of overseas expansion and mercantilism, one in which religious tensions informed international rivalries. His argument compliments recent revisionist examinations of the Refuge by challenging the image created by the Huguenots themselves, one that portrays them as emigrating primarily for religious reasons.4 He argues that empire builders, particularly the Dutch and English, were, indeed, horrified by the persecution of fellow Protestants and saw the Huguenots as victims. But he also demonstrates that they viewed the French refugees as industrious workers who could people and develop their overseas empires, particularly by producing wine and silk. The Huguenots promoted themselves as God's chosen as shown by their resistance to intolerance, but were far from responding only to religious imperatives, because they needed powerful patrons to survive. Driven by pragmatism, they also styled themselves as people with special skills in order to attract patrons. Stanwood argues against the idea, promoted in later memory, that the Huguenots were simply martyrs for religious liberty. Instead, he suggests they had had multiple motives as they parlayed their international mercantile and family ties across the globe to survive in an age of empire. [End Page 257] Stanwood organizes his book thematically, escaping the national framework that has characterized much of the historiography on the Refuge. His thematic arrangement also proceeds roughly chronologically, capturing continuities and discontinuities over the period from 1685 to the revolutionary period. Chapter 1, "The Beginning of the End of the World," chronicles the immediate impact of the Revocation and the ways in which the Huguenots shaped their image from the outset. Stanwood uses the pastor Pierre Jurieu, to illustrate the intersection of the creation of an engaging story of the French Protestants, an appeal to Protestants to aid the refugees, and the mobilization of an international Protestant network, one that linked merchants, pastors, publications, and families.5 Jurieu, based in Rotterdam, immediately emphasized the religious reasons for leaving France. He emphasized their martyrdom in leaving all behind for the faith, characterizing those who stayed and abjured as less true to God. Those who left had a special status and were among the elect. This is the image that persisted until recent revisionist accounts began to show the complexity of the Huguenot experience in the Refuge. Jurieu, however, had the immediate practical goal of inspiring Protestants around Europe to aid the Huguenots by providing safe havens and monetary assistance. Jurieu and other apologists were successful in raising awareness of the dangers presented by Catholicism. The political situation contributed; the 1680s were also the period of the Glorious Revolution in England and the victory of William III, who helped make England a leader in the Protestant world. Stanwood traces the movements of the Huguenots as they used existing networks to migrate from cities on the French Atlantic coast to Dutch and English ports, or overland to Geneva and from there to other Swiss cantons and onto the Netherlands, Brandenburg, and England. In so doing, they expanded the networks that were crucial to their survival and to the idea of a Protestant International. Jurieu also provides the ideological link between religious refuge and colonization. The goal was...

Demographic Transition and the Industrial Revolution in England: Inverse Rural and Urban Processes

We present a model of 19th Century population change in England & Wales. The model highlights contrasting demographic and economic processes in rural and urban sectors as core explanations for rural to urban migration, stemming from labor surpluses in the former and labor shortages in the latter. This massive migration transformed the geographic distribution of the population, in tandem with the economic transformation caused by the Industrial Revolution. We argue that demographic literature on historical population processes in England & Wales in the 19th Century has paid insufficient attention to the role of internal migration.

Women, Horse Sports, and Liberation: Equestrianism and Britain from the 18th to the 20th Centuries

In Women, Horse Sports, and Liberation, Erica Munkwitz examines British women's involvement in equestrianism from the eighteenth through the twentieth century. In chronological order, she examines British women's participation in horse sports and how such involvement shaped—and was shaped by—gender, social, cultural, and sporting ideals. Muntwitz begins presenting women's participation in hunting, relating it to the sporting revolution in Britain, which spanned 1772 to 1825. Women have a long history of participating in hunting, and the late eighteenth century was an era of widespread and talented female horsemanship. Yet female numbers decreased in the first part of the nineteenth century as a consequence of the changing nature of the hunt. From 1805 through 1857, horse riding was seen as a healthy exercise for women, and the practice of riding in the city parks developed. According to Munkwitz, horse riding was connected to the elite up until the mid-nineteenth century. Thereafter, it trickled down the social ladder as horses became more affordable. The number of women as horse owners, the number of riding horses available, and riding manuals for women all increased. From 1857 to 1913, women's participation in hunting thus grew further. In the last periods analyzed in the book, 1894–1932 and 1932–1956, women's importance in equestrianism continued to expand. Women worked with horses during war times, and in the interwar period, there was a massive surge in the number of riders. Horse riding activities for women had emerged earlier than many other sports activities, and Britain, to an increasing extent, was represented by women in equestrian competitions at elite levels.In Munkwitz's work, the importance of national identity also comes forward as an important explanatory factor in relation to women's riding. Haute école (a style of horse riding born from cavalry movements and training for the battlefield) declined in Britain following the Civil Wars as the British considered it inadequate riding; this rejection was seen as a consequence of the British sporting revolution where hunting became important. Later, horse riding in India became a way of marking British nationality for both men and women, and women participated in horse riding activities in the colony to a higher (and broader) extent than in Britain. In imperial India, women could train horses, ride cross saddled, and participate in polo and gymkhana (a competitive sport played on horseback). In this context, being white was more important than gender identity in deciding who could ride or not. Women's involvement thus reshaped ideals of race and reinforced imperial ideology in the British Empire.The book is unique and fascinating in describing the history of equestrianism over a long period and from a gender perspective. There are, however, some critical issues I would like to raise (possibly deriving from my belonging to a different tradition of writing history). The work lacks a thorough presentation of the source material (and possibly a list of the sources). The author uses magazines, books about horse riding and women, and pictures (the book is beautifully illustrated with black-and-white prints, many in the author's collection). It is, however, difficult to know how many of these magazines and books are used as sources and how they were individually interpreted. Likewise, more information about readership and circulation of primary sources would have been useful. It is sometimes difficult to follow whether the number of books on horse riding was actually increasing or not, and especially whether any rise was part of the development of increased book publications in general. An argument in the book is that women's participation in horse sports “transcended limitations of class and gender in Britain and highlights the democratic ethos that allowed anyone skilled enough to ride and hunt—from chimney-sweep to courtesan.” Even though the author presents examples of this, it is, without a thorough discussion of the sources, difficult to know how widespread the development was.My objections do not detract me from the pleasures of reading a book that takes a holistic approach to women and equestrian sports. Muntwitz gives the reader excellent insights into the material culture of women's equestrianism. She presents and discusses aspects of social reality grounded in objects like the saddle and equestrian clothing and makes clear that men and women had different technical opportunities in relation to riding. The history of saddles is closely connected to the development of behaviors, norms, and rituals in relation to female equestrians. Over time, (British) women abandoned the sidesaddle—which they had been riding in for almost half a millennium—to ride astride like men. This is fascinating reading for all interested in how the intertwinement of material culture, gender, social class, nation, and whiteness influenced who participated in the sport and related activities and how the different positions were more or less important in various times and places.

Debat Pemikiran dan Pergulatan Filsafat Moderen

The configuration of the development of modern philanthropy has a long and tumultuous history, emerging as a symbol of the thesis and antithesis, resistance and struggle, rebellion and counter-aggression and rejection of what is past and traditional. In modern times a philosophy emerged from various schools emerged. Basically the overall pattern of modern philosophy takes on the color of Greek philosophical Sufism. The development of human thought in the Middle Ages gave rise to thoughts oriented to the advancement of technology (modern philosophy), this was marked by the emergence of the Renaissance. In this century, science experienced rapid progress which led to the industrial revolution in England with the results of fame by modern philosophers. The Renaissance is a time of rebirth of classical Greek and Roman civilization. The concept of history at this time refers to periods of indivualism, the rise of antique culture, discoveries of the world and humans, as a period opposed to the medieval period. This era is also a refinement of art, expertise, and knowledge that is manifested in a versatile genius. Figures from this school are Nicholas Copernicus, Francis Bacon, Tycho Brahe. Johannes Keppler, Gallileo Galilei, Isaac Newton, and Joseph Black. Rationalism is the flow that has the view that knowledge is obtained by rational processes, namely through reasoning, knowledge can be achieved naturally can be used by humans, namely reason (ratio) and experience (empiri) also legitimately and correctly. The philosophers of this genre are Rene Decartes, Barunch Spinoza, and Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz. In addition to the two schools above, there is a school of empiricism which has an opinion contrary to Rationalism. They were of the view that knowledge was obtained from empirical experience, the leaders of this sect were Thomas Hobbes and John Locke.

The Africa Green Revolution, Achievements, and Challenges in Agriculture

After the second Agricultural revolution in England, the third green revolution was started in India between 1955 to 1960s to increase food production and feed the millions of malnourished people throughout the nation and quickly spread to other countries. Green revolution emerged because of thinking about populations and the problem of hunger in very particular ways. Many Asian and other countries were immediately adopted the green revolution and accelerated the growth and poverty reduction dramatically. Africa has the potential for a green revolution but due to too late acceptance of the green revolution yet the yields are far below their potential and the use of modern inputs such as fertilizer and high-yielding varieties of seeds is extremely low. Therefore, to increase productivity and eliminate poverty from the people the focus of the Green Revolution for developing countries, especially for Africa is mandatory. Keywords : Africa, Agriculture, green revolution DOI: 10.7176/JBAH/12-5-03 Publication date: March 31 st 2022

Lemon Juice Catalysed Green Synthesis of Triazole Based Schiff Base, Its Physico-Chemical & Spectral Characterisation and Determination of its Binding Stoichiometry with Cu2+ ion

Abstract: In the recent years Environmental Pollution has emerged as a major challenge for human society. Since the start of Industrial Revolution in England, the amount of chemical waste and toxic substances are increasing exponentially in the environment. The traditional synthesis of chemical substances is accompanied by use of large amount of energy, harmful solvents and release of toxic substances in environment. The green synthesis aims to minimise the release and use of harmful toxic material in synthesis. In the present paper we have prepared a triazole derivative, 4-[(E)-Benzylideneamino]-5-methyl-2,4- dihydro-3H-1,2,4-triazole-3-thione through green synthetic route. The reaction was catalysed by lemon juice and it was carried out in solvent-free condition through mechano-chemical stirring method. The physico-chemical properties were studied. The FT-IR spectral analysis confirmed the structure of Schiff base. The stoichiometry of binding with Cu2+ was determined through Method of Continuous Variation. The Schiff base- metal ratio was found to be 1:1. Keywords: Green Synthesis, Mechano-Chemical Stirring Method, Triazole, Schiff Base, Lemon Juice, Physico-Chemical Properties, Job’s Plot, Stoichiometry of Binding.

Freedom and Capitalism in Early Modern Europe: Mercantilism and the Making of the Modern Economic Mind

Freedom and Capitalism in Early Modern Europe: Mercantilism and the Making of the Modern Economic Mind