Revolution In Europe Research Articles

Louis Riel and the Creation of Modern Canada: Mythic Discourse and the Postcolonial State (review)

Reviewed by: Louis Riel and the Creation of Modern Canada: Mythic Discourse and the Postcolonial State Colin M. Coates Louis Riel and the Creation of Modern Canada: Mythic Discourse and the Postcolonial State. Jennifer Reid. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2008. Pp. 314, $34.95 cloth Louis Riel has been a most malleable historical figure, standing in for a variety of causes: Aboriginal rights, Western Canadian alienation, bilingualism, deluded messianism, and Métis identity. Riel’s appeal to different groups in Canada (French, English, Métis, First Nations) sets him apart from other figures of the country’s past. Examining a wide range of poetry, prose, film, and operatic and historical versions of the Riel story, Jennifer Reid canvasses these identities, arguing that Riel is the most variegated historical character in Canadian history, as well as the most studied. The range is not particularly surprising: All heroes and anti-heroes are subjected to similar processes of reinterpretation and recasting. All historical figures take on guises, as their stories are retold and reinterpreted, and of course this process is in no way unique to Canada. It is difficult to imagine a single historical figure whose significance remains stable over time. This book contributes to the ongoing reinterpretation of Louis Riel, seeing him as a foundational figure for the constitutional novelty of the Canadian state. The book goes much further than merely examining the many faces of Louis Riel. Riel is the touchstone for an alternative Canadian narrative, one that recognizes difference: ‘a most basic fact of the [End Page 784] Canadian experience: that of cultural hybridity or, as I will choose to describe it, métissage’ (71). Reid’s study therefore has grand ambitions: to recast an overarching Canadian narrative. This is not a Laurentian thesis redux, but rather a way to reinterpret Canadian historical development. Essentially, Reid’s analysis relies on jettisoning the concept of the nation-state. Canada is more than a nation-state, she argues, and its political, linguistic, social, and ethnic complexities set it apart from other countries. With its lack of a revolution or other defining historical moments, Canada does not fit the mould of other countries. Without the putative ethnic and cultural unity of archetypical nation-states – Reid is not clear in the text itself which countries this category might include, though her endnotes provide some discussion of the United States – Canadians are fated to lack a firm understanding of their common experience. There was a time when scholars looking at the development of Canadian nationhood would have made sustained comparisons with Australia and New Zealand, and maybe South Africa. The similarities in constitutional evolution are striking, yet Canadian scholars are keener to compare their country with other states that apparently base their nationhood on revolution and ‘independence.’ Such comparisons are latent throughout the book, though they lack specificity and fail to acknowledge that countries such as the United States – presumably one of the exemplars of a revolutionary nation-state – also experienced a bloody and destructive civil war where clearly whatever unifying national narrative that may have once existed failed utterly. Canadians often assume that other countries forged their identity through revolution and political choice, thereby downplaying the postmodern nature of even archetypical countries. Tom Nairn long ago deconstructed British (he writes ‘UKanian’ identity), and an analysis of Canadian identity – or lack thereof – would benefit from a sustained comparison with other contexts. ‘Can Canada provide a model for the state in a world that is still largely defined by the nation-state?’ Reid queries (248). This is an intelligent question and one that is certainly worth exploring. One might have expected to see some discussion of two of the leading international political theorists – both of them Canadians – Charles Taylor and Will Kymlicka, though it seems churlish to ask a broadly researched book to do even more. The book circulates in and out of Riel’s biography, focusing on the 1869–70 and 1885 Rebellions. With the violent events as anchors, the [End Page 785] author reflects broadly on the nature of the Canadian state. The rebellions, Reid claims, are analogous to the 1848 revolutions in Europe and reveal the violence at the centre of...

Sister Republics: Power and Law in Revolutionary Europe

The French Revolution provoked the revival of Franco-Austrian and gave a new boost to Franco-British rivalry. Both conflicts encouraged the French Republic to bring the second and third rank powers of Western Europe within its sphere of influence. This paper sets out to address the implications of this strategy for interstate legal relations. One of the answers to no longer being able to balance Austria and Russia in the east was for France to set out for hegemony in the west by annexing the Austrian Netherlands and the Rhineland, and by creating a chain of ‘sister republics’ along its borders, that is, in the Low Countries, Switzerland, and Italy. This paper addresses whether the principles and rules of a legal order of independence and equality were upheld. What role did law and legal arguments play in the relations between France and its sister republics? How did the French exercise their hegemony? The paper elaborates on one specific case - negotiations on the 1795 Treaty of The Hague between France and the Batavian Republic, with particular attention being paid to French territorial demands.

Betrayed Promises: Politics and Sexual Revolution in the Films of Márta Mészáros, Miloš Forman, and Dušan Makavejev

Eastern Europe has been a terrain on which the twentieth century has challengingly experimented with revolutionary discourse, and cinema has been there to document these experiments. This article focuses on a constellation of Eastern European films from the 1960s and the early 1970s that interrogate sexual practices in “real-existing socialism”: Márta Mészáros's Riddance, Miloš Forman's Loves of a Blonde, and Dušan Makavejev's Love Affair, or The Case of the Missing Switchboard Operator and WR: Mysteries of the Organism. To what extent has the communist revolution also been a sexual revolution? How did it mange to reform (or fail to reform) some of the state's most enduring institutions, marriage and the family? Has the revolution betrayed its promises to radically address the “woman question”? Has it perpetuated bourgeois values? Could the subjects and regimes of Eastern Europe have survived a sexual revolution? What does sexuality tell us about the repressive politics of Eastern European revolutionary governments?

Outline History of the Ukrainian Communist Party (Independentists): An Emancipatory Communism 1918–1925

This article examines an aspect of the Russian and East European Revolutions that has been largely overlooked by historians. That of the Independentist Ukrainian Marxists who challenged both the Russian Communists and the Ukrainian nationalists in their quest for an independent Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic. Originating in Ukrainian Social-Democracy, the Nezalezhnyky (Independentists) anticipated many of the ideas of the communist oppositions' who sought to reassert the libertarian goals of the revolution. Struggling first within the Ukrainian Peoples Republic then the Ukrainian SSR, their campaign had international ramifications and gained the support Bela Kun's Soviet Hungary. In 1919, commanding a section of the Red Army the Nezalezhnyky led a pro-soviet rebellion larger and far more serious than the Kronstadt uprising. Organised as the Ukrainian Communist Party, between 1919–1925 they were the last legal-opposition party in the USSR. In the face of harassment they were the only communists to exp...

An 1848 for the Americas: The Black Atlantic, "El negro martir," and Cuban Exile Anticolonialism in New York City

In the wake of the European revolutions of 1848 and the convulsions of independence and abolition sweeping across the Caribbean and Latin America, scores of political refugees arrived in New York City. Many of these exiles contributed to republican periodicals like the French Le Republicain, the Italian L’Eco d’Italia, and the Cuban El Eco de Cuba, El Filibustero, El Horizonte, El Mulato, El Pueblo, La Revolucion, and La Verdad (Catania 2:14–15; Ortiz). In the early 1850s, New York City was an incubator of republican nationalism for both Europe and the Americas, linking Young America to Giovane Italia and Joven Cuba, the anticolonial Cuban exile movement. New York reacted more to celebrity than to ethics when it gave a hero’s welcome to both the antislavery Giuseppe Garibaldi, the Italian nationalist, and the proslavery Jose Antonio Paez, the Venezuelan caudillo and president, when they arrived in July 1850. Two years later, Francisco Aguero y Estrada, an obscure white exile from Cuba, sailed into New York harbor without any fanfare. But Aguero, a veteran of an ill-fated anticolonial guerilla war in Cuba, would soon usher republicanism into an innovative reckoning with its contradictions of race and slavery, which defined the position of the Americas in the modern world system. As the intellectual architect of El Mulato’s intervention in republicanism, Aguero dismantled the Negrophobic logic of Cuban exile nationalism as pro-slavery annexationism when he boldly declared that if the

Sumatra’s Rubber Agroforests: Advent, Rise and Fall of a Sustainable Cropping System

Until the end of the nineteenth century primary forests covered nearly all the island of Sumatra. The first valorisation of this natural resource was hunting and gathering activities, followed by and later associated with swidden cultivation of upland rice. The industrial revolution in Europe and North America in the 1950s created increasing demand for rubber. Answering this new market opportunity, farmers introduced rubber seedlings in their swiddens amidst the upland rice. By doing so, they invented a new cropping system, i.e. rubber agroforests. Thanks to the continuously increasing demand for rubber by the developing industry, rubber agroforests spread over Sumatra’s eastern peneplains until the 1990s. Forest conversion to rubber agroforests conserves a high level of forest biodiversity and the agroforests act as a buffer zone around national parks. But with growing demographic pressure, market integration and household monetary needs, agroforests are increasingly endangered. New cropping systems have appeared and challenge agroforests’ dominance in the landscape. Since the mid-twentieth century, rubber monospecific plantations have been competing for land, with an undoubtedly higher profitability than agroforests. More recently, oil palm plantations have spread over the island, quickly becoming the new challenger to rubber agroforestry. Nevertheless, the international community shows more and more interest in forest and biodiversity conservation. Forest cover in Jambi province has nearly disappeared over the past 30 years. The only way to save the remnants of forests and agroforests seems to be the creation of market incentives through conservation programs such as reducing emissions from deforestation and degradation.

Global institutions: the World Health Organization (WHO)

This book is a short and very readable account of the origins and evolution of WHO as the United Nations specialized agency for global health. It will be of interest not only to scholars and practitioners of public health, but also to those interested in development and international relations. Starting with a brief review of the history of international cooperation aimed at prevention and control of the spread of communicable diseases across borders, the book traces the rise of social medicine and public health in response to recognition of social and economic determinants of the health of populations during the Industrial Revolution in Europe and subsequently into the 20th century on both sides of the Atlantic. Biomedical and social concepts of human health have led to tensions with regard to defining the scope and limits of public health and its amenability to scientific and technical or social and political action. The book discusses these tensions in relation to the foundation of WHO in the aftermath of the Second World War, starting with a definition of its mandate and constitution, which came into force on 7 April 1948. While the constitution adopts a broad notion of health, nevertheless the history of WHO in the subsequent 60 years reveals alternating and competing cycles that reflect ongoing debate and opinions on how best to promote the attainment by all peoples of the highest possible level of health. Following a brief review of the events leading up to WHO’s creation, the book analyses the structure, functions and governance of the Organization, all of which are intended to reflect universal membership as well as its role as the United Nations specialized agency for health. This chapter explains WHO’s unique regional and global structure that enables the Organization to carry out its dual normative and technical cooperation functions, the latter implemented through its 147 country offices. Two chapters are dedicated to analysing WHO’s approaches to competing pressures among its Member States on how best to improve and promote health. These pressures arise from two related dichotomies. The first relates to the relative effectiveness of focusing on specific diseases versus strengthening health systems. The second relates to the balance between focus on health and the health sector versus broader determinants of health and the need for health in all policies and intersectoral action. A chapter on global campaigns against specific diseases traces WHO action against malaria, smallpox, HIV/AIDS and poliomyelitis. It notes how disease control and eradication campaigns fire the public imagination and attract donors. For many people they epitomize the work of a world health organization. However, the author notes WHO’s mixed record and concludes that global disease campaigns are not in themselves an adequate fulfilment of WHO’s mandate to improve world health. A chapter on tackling the broad determinants of health examines attempts by the public health community to influence the work of WHO to better reflect its Constitution. It traces early work that focused on single factors such as water, sanitation, nutrition and housing before moving on to the primary health care movement of the 1970s and 1980s that drew international attention to health equity and the fundamental importance of ensuring universal access to services, including essential medicines. The author records the controversies and political tensions that have accompanied WHO’s work in these areas, including recent work on tobacco control, trade and health and prevention of chronic diseases in which strong vested interests have sought to oppose and undermine the work of the Organization. The final chapter describes pressure on WHO to respond to the realities of globalization by engaging with new stakeholders, beyond its member states, and addressing important cross-border health determinants. The author examines the pressures on the secretariat to embrace global health and the ensuing challenges to revisit WHO’s mandate, basic functions and even its underlying value system. In line with the higher-than-ever priority that has been accorded to public health in international affairs, WHO’s functions and governance have been the subject of repeated studies and calls for reform since the early 1990s. The book concludes that politics has been embedded in WHO throughout its history and is an obvious feature of an international organization mandated to promote the attainment of the highest possible level of health for all peoples. In that context, it is remarkably current at this juncture when human health and wellbeing face challenges as great as any since the Organization was established. ■

:Naples and Napoleon: Southern Italy and the European Revolutions (1780–1860)

:Naples and Napoleon: Southern Italy and the European Revolutions (1780–1860)

Review of Reflections on the Revolution in Europe: Immigration, Islam, and the West

Review of Reflections on the Revolution in Europe: Immigration, Islam, and the West

From the retailing revolution to the consumer revolution: Department stores in modern Shanghai

Following the Industrial Revolution in Europe and America, the market was flooded with manufacturing goods. To promote sales, the department store that stressed a “low profit, high volume” model appeared in Shanghai. Sellers lowered prices to encourage purchases, and used rapid and high volume turnover to make up for lower profits. To speed up turnover, department stores invented various devices to increase sales, including intensive media advertising, open and comfortable store spaces, and free and attentive services. The new sales philosophy and tactics not only brought about a breakthrough in the retailing, but also reshaped consumer life and urban culture. The Shanghai department store evinced the social and cultural meaning of consumption in its building and inner design, its application of new technology, and its promotional activities and products display. A consumer lifestyle centering on the department store also remolded the Shanghai society.

Transition to Democracy and Citizenship Education in Portugal: Changes and Continuities in the Curricula and in Adolescents’ Opportunities for Participation

The intense historical transformations in Portugal during the last 30 years have had a profound impact on the educational system and on its role in citizenship education. During this period, Portugal experienced dictatorship, the last socialist revolution in Europe (1974) (Barreto, 2002), the end of colonial empire and of colonial wars, the stabilization of a democratic regime and the entrance in the European Economic Community later to be transformed into the European Union. Such deep social and political transformation had strong implications in education and its mission in promoting democratic citizenship has been intensively discussed, with fears of ideological inculcation and a tension between conservative vs. emancipatory goals underpinning the curricular decisions in the field. This paper considers these transformations and articulates them with the perspective of adolescents in basic and secondary education regarding citizenship, politics and civic engagement and the actual opportunities for participation they feel they have in the family, the school, and the community. The bases for this discussion are two studies with Portuguese adolescents: the IEA Civic Education Study (CivEd 2000-2001) that involves three national representative samples of students from grade 8, 9 and 11; and a longitudinal study (2005-07) with adolescents from grades 9, 10 and 11. Results from both studies show a tendency for a dissatisfaction/distrust that young people have in relation to key-institutions of democracy (government, political parties) but, at the same time, the valuing of active citizenship and the emergence of new forms of participation. That oxymoron appears as a challenge to both researchers and teachers that might take advantage in being more aware of the quality of youngsters’ participation experiences in their various life contexts.

The Gender of Europe's Commercial Economy, 1200–1700

This essay proposes that between about 1200 and 1700, commerce was rescued from the margins of the European moral economy with the help of a gender binary that took shape among a rising class of European merchant and artisan families. Among this class, a more rigid sexual division of labour was accompanied by a cultural narrative that credited tradesmen with the ability to serve the social whole and charged their wives and daughters with the task of ridding consumption of the taint of sin. The story of the commercial revolution in Europe was, thus, in part a social, legal and cultural history that redefined male and female for a rising class of people and, in fact, helped define the class itself.

Between Land and Water: Being a Settler at Ile-aux-Oies in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries

This paper first describes the particular environment represented by the middle estuary where Ile-aux-Oies lies. Secondly, it reconstructs an early French farming settlement on the basis of archaeological remains and demonstrates the place it occupies in this special environment. And thirdly, it places the process of adaptation and appropriation in a more global perspective through a discussion of our research in the light of Ian Hodder’s thesis on the domestication of space during the Neolithic Revolution in Europe.

Discerning the Global in the European Revolutions of 1989

This study addresses one of the contemporary and controversial issues identifying financialelements that affect growth rates for firms with...

Challenges of Doing Sociology in a Globalizing South: Between Indigenization and Emergent Structures

As sociology emerged from the womb of the industrial revolution in Europe and the challenges of the anomic socio-economic environment, the concern of its founding fathers naturally gravitated around Western ideologies and challenges. The modernization paradigm facilitated the hegemonic ascendancy of Western sociology in the South until the recent ideological impasse, when the South began to grope for fresh insights. Currently, attention is still being drawn to the sociological significance of emancipation from systemic inequality created by social structural variables in the development process globally but particularly in poorer countries. This study, therefore, draws from Professor Peter Ekeh’s “Colonialism and Social Structure” and his theoretical statement on the two public to highlight the consequences of uncritical engagement in the Periphery with the sociology of the Core, the importance of agency in post-imperialistic thinking in sociology, and the implications for repositioning sociologists in the South for the task of a more creative local engagement with globalizing ideologies that are integral to mainstream sociology in the North. The paper also highlights the roles of international, regional, and national associations such as the International Sociological Association (ISA), the African Sociological Association (AFSA), the Nigerian Sociological and Anthropological Association (NASA), and the Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa (CODESRIA) in setting the agenda.

A Second Haitian Revolution: John Brown, Toussaint Louverture, and the Making of the American Civil War

A Second Haitian Revolution: John Brown, Toussaint Louverture, and the Making of the American Civil War Matthew Clavin (bio) “One of the most extraordinary men of a time when so many extraordinary men appeared.”1 The French historian Alphonse Beauchamp, who wrote these words in the Universal Biography at the opening of the nineteenth century as a series of democratic revolutions in Europe and throughout the Americas came to an end, did not intend them for George Washington, the Virginia planter who led Britain’s thirteen North American colonies to independence. Nor did he intend them for Napoleon Bonaparte, the Corsican soldier who brought order out of the chaos of the French Revolution and conquered Europe, or Simon Bolivar, the Venezuelan aristocrat who ended Spanish rule throughout much of Latin America. They referred instead to François Dominique Toussaint Louverture, the black general and former bondman who led an army of rebel slaves to victory over their former masters as well as the [End Page 117] armies of France, England, and Spain at the end of the eighteenth century in the Saint-Domingue or Haitian Revolution.2 It may come as a revelation that Beauchamp was not alone in his assessment. While today it is difficult to find people who revere the black slaves who centuries ago killed whites to be free, in the aftermath of the Haitian Revolution, men and women throughout the Atlantic world celebrated Louverture as a Great Man, a slave who compared favorably to other Great Men of the Age of Revolution. Americans in the new republic resisted this enlightened interpretation of history. Louverture’s greatness conflicted with their collective memory of the Haitian Revolution. They remembered that the slave revolt that began in 1791 in the French Caribbean colony of Saint-Domingue led to thirteen years of bloodshed between nearly a half-million black slaves; tens of thousands of mulattoes; and French, English, and Spanish colonists and soldiers—that when the revolution came to an end in 1804, black leaders declared national independence, gave their new nation the name used by the island’s indigenous Taino inhabitants, Haïti, and ordered the massacre of nearly every white man, woman, and child remaining in the territory. The events in Haiti had a profound impact on the American mind; they were a constant reminder of the possible outcome of any society built on the bedrock of slavery. It should come as no surprise, then, that in the 1850s when the sectional conflict between northerners and southerners grew violent and war over slavery seemed imminent, public memory of the Haitian Revolution surged. In public speeches and printed texts, southern secessionists and northern unionists conjured disturbing images of the horrors of St. Domingo in an effort to secure public policy committed to maintaining the status quo regarding the institution of slavery. Both groups warned that with the end of slavery the United States would experience a racial apocalypse like that which took place in Haiti a half century before. African Americans and their radical white allies put the memory of the Haitian Revolution to a different use. Throughout the first half of the nineteenth century, they joined the transatlantic commemoration of Louverture and in lectures, books, articles, pamphlets, and illustrations offered him to an American audience as a symbol of the virtue and potential of the black race. In addition to challenging the widespread belief in white supremacy, these abolitionists placed great emphasis on Louverture’s character for another reason: [End Page 118] to calm widespread fears of slave insurrection. By stressing his compassion and integrity at the expense of his militancy, abolitionists tried to soften the rock hard image of this indomitable black warrior. The strategy worked, for Louverture remained an antislavery icon among even the most conservative social reformers decades after his death. The convergence of European and American abolitionism around the memory of Haiti’s preeminent founding father proved resilient. It was, however, only temporary. An analysis of abolitionist oral, print, and visual culture reveals that in the decade before the Civil War, African Americans and their radical white allies transformed Louverture into a symbol of black masculinity and violence, which they deployed to bring about...

Margaret Fuller: transatlantic crossings in a revolutionary age

Margaret Fuller (1810-1850), a pioneering gender theorist, transcendentalist, journalist, and literary critic, was one of most well-known and highly regarded feminist intellectuals of nineteenth-century America. With her contemporaries Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau, she was one of predominant writers of Transcendentalist movement, and she aligned herself in both her public and private life with European revolutionary fervor of 1840s. She traveled to Italy as a foreign correspondent for New York Tribune to cover nascent revolutions, pursuing transnational ideal awakened in her youth by a classical education in European languages and a Romantic curiosity about cultures, traditions, and identities. This volume is a collaboration of international scholars who, from varied fields and approaches, assess Fuller's genius and character. Treating last several years of Margaret Fuller's short life, these essays offer a truly international discussion of Fuller's unique cultural, political, and personal achievements. From origins and articulations of Fuller's cosmopolitanism to her examination of the woman question, and from her fascination with European other to her candid perception of imperial America from abroad, they ponder what such an extraordinary woman meant to America, and also to Italy and Europe, during her lifetime and continuing to present.

Book Reviews

Australian Journal of Politics & HistoryVolume 38, Issue 3 p. 461-501 Book Reviews First published: December 1992 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8497.1992.tb00684.xAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Abstract Book reviewed in this article: AUSTRALASIA. IMAGES OF AUSTRALIA Edited by Gillian Whitlock and David Carter. AUSTRALIA COMPARED: People, Policies and Politics Edited by Francis G. Castles. MILLERS POINT: The Urban Village By Shirley Fitzgerald and Christopher Keating. AUSTRALIA'S COMMONWEALTH PARLIAMENT 1901–1988 By G. S. Reid and Martyn Forrest THE WAAAF IN WARTIME AUSTRALIA By Joyce A. Thomon. IMIN NANMIN ENJO NO SEIJIGAKU: Oosutoraraia to kokusai shakai [POLITICS OF MIGRATION, REFUGEES, AND FOREIGH AID: Australia and International Society] Isami Takeda. HAWKE AND PUBLIC POLICY: Consensus and restructuring Edited by Christine Jennett and Randal G. Stewart. HAWKE'S LAW: The Politics of Mining and Aboriginal Land Rights in Australia By Ronald T. Libby. ABORIGINES AND POLITICAL POWER By Scott Bennett. SON OF ALYANDABU By Joe McGinness. THE PRICE OF HEALTH: Australian Governments and Medical Politics 1910–1960 By James A. Gillespie. HISTORY OF TUBERCULOSIS IN AUSTRALIA, NEW ZEALAND AND PAPUA NEW GUINEA Edited by A. J. Proust. WORKING FOR CHANGE: The Movement Against Domestic Violence By Heather McGregor and Andrew Hopkins. WORKING AUSTRALIA By Charlie Fox. GAY PERSPECTIVES; ESSAYS IN AUSTRALIAN GAY CULTURE Edited by Robert Aldrich and Gamy Wotherspoon. THE NERVOUS NINETIES: Australian Cultural Life in 1890s By John Docker. THE 1990 GENERAL ELECTION: Perspectives on Political Change in New Zealand Edited by E. McLeay. PAPUA NEW GUINEA: The Challenge of Independence By Mark Turner. PAPUA NEW GUINEA By Sean Dorney. EUROPE. THE EUROPEAN DYNASTIC STATES 1494–1660: The Short Oxford History of the Modern World Series By Richard Bonney. THE MAKING OF MODERN FRANCE: Politics, Ideology and Culture By Emmanuel Todd. THE FRENCH HISTORICAL REVOLUTION: The Annals School, 1929-89 By Peter Burke. THE REVENGE OF HISTORY: Marxism and the East European Revolutions Alex Callinicos. EUROPE FROM BELOW: An East-West Dialogue Edited by Mary Kaldor. GORBACHEV Zhores Medvedev. FROM PADUA TO THE TRIANON; 1918–1920 By Maria Ormos. NORTH AMERICA. AMERICA RECOMMITTED: United States national Interests in a Restructured World By Donald E. Nuechterlein. AGENTS OF REPRESSION: The FBI's Secret War Against the Black Panther Party and he American Indian Movement By Ward Churchill and Jim VanderWall LIBERTY & COMMUNITY: Canadian Federalism and the Failure of the Constitution By Robert C. Vipond. ASIA. DIPLOMATIC IDEAS AND PRACTICES OF ASIAN STATES Edited by Ashok Kapur. WOMEN IN INDIA AND NEPAL Edited by Michael Alien and S. N. Mukherjee. THE SIKHS: History, Religion and Society By W. H. McLeod. THE COMMONWEALTH ARMIES AND THE KOREAN WAR; An Alliance Study By Jeffery Grey. BUSINESS-GOVERNMENT RELATIONS ININDUSTRIALISING EAST ASIA: South Korea and Thailand By Andrew Maclntyre. CROSSING THE INDUSTRIAL DIVIDE: State, Society and the Poitics of Economic Transformation in Malaysia By Alasdair Bowie. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS: Global and Australian Perspectives on an Evolving Discipline Edited by Richard Higgott and J. L. Richardson. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN POLITICAL THEORY By Howard Williams. GERMANY, AMERICA, EUROPE: Forty years of German Foreign Policy By Wolfram Hawieder. SECURITY AND DEFENCE: Pacific and Global Perspectives Edited by Desmond Ball Md Cathy Downes. AID AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE SOUTH PACIFIC By Peter Bauer, Savenuca Siwatibau and Wolfgang Kasper. FRANCE AND THE SOUTH PACIFIC: A Contemporary History By Stephen Henningham. POLITICS AND IDEAS. NEW HORIZONS IN POLITICS: Essays with an Australian Focus Edited by Hugh V. Emy and Andrew Linklater. JIDICIAL ACTIVISM IN COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE Edited by Kenneth M. Holland. ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS COMES OF AGE By Gerald E. Caiden. THE POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY OF MONTAIGNE By David Lewis Schaefer. THE LIFE AND THOUGHT OF FRIEDRICH ENGELS: A Reinterpretation By J. D. Hunley. THE BLACKWELL ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF POLITICAL THOUGHT Edited by David Miller. THE BLACKWELL ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF POLITICAL SCIENCE Edited by Vernon Bogdunor. Social science methodology: a Brief But Critical Introduction By Frank Lewins. Volume38, Issue3December 1992Pages 461-501 RelatedInformation

Naples and Napoleon. Southern Italy and the European Revolutions, 1780–1860 (review)

Naples and Napoleon. Southern Italy and the European Revolutions, 1780–1860 (review)

Missing the Forest for the Trees in Biomedical Research: The Example of Noma

Month after month passed after the outbreak of the epidemic, without the higher governmental authorities taking the least notice of its occurrence. Autumn had gone, winter was approaching and with it the spectres of hunger and cold—nothing was done. Finally, small sums of money were granted for direct distribution to the needy, but the red tape of the bureaucracy was such, even in this, that they requested detailed receipts on the distribution of the money which was supposed to be given out in the smallest of amounts, so as to be able to submit them to the general auditing chamber. Finally, the press began to broadcast, through Prussia and the whole of Germany, the inconceivable and incredible happenings in Upper Silesia. –Rudolf Virchow, “Report on the Typhus Epidemic in Upper Silesia” 1 Thus Rudolf Virchow describes the German government’s response to the epidemic of “typhus” in Upper Silesia in the 1840s. Virchow, the polymath pathologist (who is most famous for developing the cell theory of disease) was a political activist who fought on the barricades during the European revolutions of 1848. He argued that the essential cause of this epidemic that affected tens of thousands was the Prussian government’s inaction and cultural mandates imposed on a foreign, colonized people. As Howard Waitzkin notes, “Virchow argued that defects of society formed a necessary condition for the emergence of epidemics. According to this analysis, inadequate social conditions increased the population’s susceptibility to climate, infectious agents and other specific causal factors—none of which alone was sufficient to produce an epidemic. For the prevention and eradication of epidemics, social change was as important as medical intervention, if not more so.” 2 Ironically, despite being a founder of the modern cell theory of disease, Virchow criticized