Cultural Revolution Research Articles

Early concrete bridges in China as (dissonant) modern heritage: A case study of the double‐curved bridges in Nanjing

AbstractThis research aims to explore early concrete bridges in China, especially those from 1950s to 1970s, as a form of modern heritage. It asserts that there are inherent contradictions in how these bridges were perceived over half a century later. Although this may affect their listing as cultural heritage, it also makes them a representative case for a decentered approach to modern heritage not only at an international level, but also within a particular national context. In a country still building concrete bridges of ever‐increasing scales, early concrete bridges in China, despite their age, are seldom considered as cultural heritage. However, while historically and technologically these bridges were close to the everyday lived experiences, they are often more difficult to research than older, pre‐1949 buildings and structures. This is not only because of the lack of readily available archives, but also that these bridges, especially the iconic “double‐curved” bridges, which were politicized during the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), represented an important period in modern Chinese history that is still politically sensitive and contested, possessing cultural values that mean vastly different things for different people. This is illustrated by the case study of three bridges in Nanjing: the Yangtze River Bridge of Nanjing, arguably the most famous Chinese bridge in the twentieth century; the Little Egret Bridge (Bailu Bridge), an early double‐curved bridge, which is said to be a prototype of the former; and the Xiaolingwei Experimental Bridge, an important landmark in the development of the double‐curved bridge but entirely forgotten after the beginning of the Cultural Revolution in 1966. Accounts from before, during, and after the Cultural Revolution provide very different narratives about the process of their design and construction. Their different geographical locations and different associations with this turbulent and contested period of modern Chinese history also affects their conservation status today. All these factors combined make these bridges an exemplar of dissonant modern heritage that, although situated in a Chinese context, has important lessons globally for our understanding of the impact and legacies of modernity.

LONG-TERM EFFECTS OF EDUCATION ON LATE-LIFE DEPRESSION OF RURAL WOMEN IN CHINA

Abstract Despite the noted association between educational attainment and mental health, there is considerable debate on whether this relationship is causal. Up to now, there are only a few studies using credible estimation strategies to examine the causal impact of education on mental health, and almost no evidence exists for low and middle-income developing countries from regions like Asia. This is concerning given that mental health problems and late-life depression are growing in the Asian population, especially for women and rural residents. In this paper, I aim to fill the gap by examining the long-term causal effect of additional educational attainment on the depressive symptoms of rural women in China. Using Harmonized CHARLS data, I leveraged the sudden end of the Chinese Cultural Revolution in 1976 as an exogenous shock to education, and employed both event study and regression discontinuity designs to estimate its causal effect on late-life depressive symptoms. Results show a protective effect of education for the rural women who stayed in rural areas, and a negative impact of education on the urbanized rural women. The impacts are likely to be mediated by childhood adversities (being poor and unhealthy), marriage status (being widowed), and disability status (difficulty in performing activities necessary for independent living). The proposed research will be the first study to examine the causal effect of education on the mental health of the Chinese population. It will add to the existing literature by providing evidence from underdeveloped regions in Asian countries and offering insights for future policymaking.

A Study on the Inspiration of the Tao Te Ching on Chinese Cultural Self-Confidence

“The Tao Te Ching” is the core representative work of Taoist thought, which has had a profound influence on Chinese culture. In the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, Taoist thought, Confucianism, and Legalism jointly formed a great ideological trend of contention. Since Dong Zhongshu proposed the idea of “abolishing the hundred schools of thought and only respecting Confucianism” in the Han Dynasty, Confucianism has become the mainstream cultural ideology, and Taoist thought exists only as a supplementary tributary ideology. The great collision of Eastern and Western cultures brought about by the Opium War has caused widespread doubts about Chinese mainstream culture represented by Confucian culture. In the face of the fact that the West is ahead, Chinese people have fallen into unprecedented confusion about their own culture. In 2014, Chinese leaders proposed the concept of Chinese cultural self-confidence, and pointed out that the three sources of Chinese cultural self-confidence are excellent traditional Chinese culture, revolutionary culture, and advanced socialist culture. This article argues that the concept proposed by the Chinese government is not comprehensive for building Chinese cultural self-confidence. Revolutionary culture and advanced socialist culture are the summary of China’s own special experience. Other countries do not have similar environments, and traditional culture is dominated by Confucianism. Confucianism cannot even be fully convinced within China. In the era of globalization, if China wants to gain some value recognition in the world to establish confidence, it must propose a doctrine with global value. I believe that the ideas and philosophies contained in the “Tao Te Ching” can effectively communicate between China and the world, help China gain worldwide recognition, and have great significance for enhancing Chinese cultural self-confidence.

Homiletical Competencies for the Fourth Industrial Revolution: South African perspectives on speaking truth to power

Scholars believe that we are amid one of the greatest cultural revolutions since the mass production of books in Gutenberg around 1450. The art of book printing, which originated in Central Europe, turned the world on its head within 10 years. The mass production of books resulted in most people in Europe learning to read in less than one generation, which has led to major changes in all areas of social life and has affected the lives of millions of people for over a hundred years. According to these same scholars, we currently find ourselves in a similar position through what is known as the AI (artificial intelligence). In this article, the researcher wants to come to a better understanding of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) and AI as part of it and the way they challenge preachers. The central research question is: In our pursuit to speak the truth of Jesus Christ to the powerful economic elite, what are the challenges and opportunities that the 4IR is posing to preachers?

The Hate Crime Against Liu Shaoqi in the Political Discrediting Propaganda of the Chinese Cultural Revolution

1959-1968 yılları arasında Çin Halk Cumhuriyeti Devlet Başkanı olarak görev yapan Liu Şaoçi’ye yönelik Çin Kültür Devrimi (ÇKD) sürecinde propaganda posterleri etkin bir şekilde kullanılarak yoğun bir itibarsızlaştırma propagandası gerçekleştirilmiştir. Liu, itibarsızlaştırılma propagandasında nefret söylemine ve ağır suçlamalara maruz kalmış ve 1969 yılında hayatını kaybetmiştir. 1980 yılında Liu’nun itibarı iade edilmiş, kendine atfedilen çeşitli olumsuz sıfatlar kaldırılmış ve kendisi için ulusal anma töreni düzenlenmiştir. Liu’ya yönelik gerçekleştirilen itibarsızlaştırma propagandası, ÇKD sürecindeki en önemli nefret suçlarından biri olarak ön plana çıkmıştır. Bu dönemde Liu’ya yönelik yapılan itibarsızlaştırma propagandasının ortaya konulması, ÇKD sürecinde Liu’ya karşı gerçekleştirilen nefret suçuna ışık tutulması bakımından önem taşımaktadır. Çalışmada Liu’nun itibarsızlaştırma propagandasında kullanılan posterler incelenerek, Liu’ya yönelik gerçekleştirilen nefret suçunun tespit edilmesi amaçlanmıştır. Bu amaçla çalışma kapsamında Uluslararası Sosyal Tarih Enstitüsü'nden (Internationaal Instituut voor Sociale Geschiedenis, IISG) ulaşılan Liu’ya yönelik itibarsızlaştırma propagandasında kullanılan sekiz propaganda posteri, Charles Sanders Peirce’in göstergebilim kavramları üzerinden analiz edilmiştir. Çalışmada Liu’ya yönelik itibarsızlaştırma propagandasında çeşitlik ideolojik mesajlar ve suçlamalar üzerinden Çin halkının Liu’ya karşı nefret duymasının ve aynı zamanda Liu’ya karşı harekete geçmesinin teşvik edilmesine çalışıldığı bulguları elde edilmiştir. Böylece çalışma kapsamında Liu’ya yönelik itibarsızlaştırma propagandasının ideolojik temeller üzerinden nefret suçu haline getirildiği sonucuna ulaşılmıştır.

The role of cognitive metaphor in the formation and presentation of Imam Ali’s Ideological System in Nahj al-Balagha

Cognitive metaphor, known as a set of mappings from the source domain to the target one, is to a large extent the basis of our understanding of the world; Therefore, it always occurs in our daily life and is used in various issues such as society, politics, law, philosophy, psychology, mathematics, etc. Considering the high capacity that this type of metaphor has in generating ideas, hypotheses, and theories, as well as persuading the audience and shaping behavior, it has been used as an efficient tool in Islamic holy texts; because these texts have conceptualized divine teachings and abstract concepts creatively and uniquely humans the correct way of life; understanding, analyzing and also transferring these teachings and concepts is possible with the help of conceptual metaphor. According to what has been said, it is necessary to use the cognitive approach in analyzing the discourse of Islamic holy texts; For this reason, the present study uses cognitive metaphor to analyze the metaphor: "THE WORLD IS AN INFERIOR ODIOUS OBJECT" in order specify the nature of the mentioned metaphor and explain how we understand it, and the role of this metaphor in creating transformation in human thought and behavior. The most important achievement of this research is that if the various conceptual metaphors in the world domain, which are the product of the scholarly and artistic conceptualization of Imam Ali (PBUH), enter the conceptual system of humans, it can change their vision and consequently their perceptions and actions, and in fact, lead to a fundamental cultural revolution.

An Examination of the Factors Influencing the Urban-rural Education Divide: A Case Study of Cultural Context

As China's per capita GDP index continues to rise, the disparity, especially the education gap between urban and rural development continuously widens, which has an adverse effect on the development of rural areas. Education in rural areas has emerged as a significant concern among the local population. The education difference between rural as well as urban regions can be attributed to various variables, with the often overlooked yet challenging-to-address influences of cultural and historical backgrounds playing a significant role. Consequently, by comparing various research data and literature in urban and rural areas of China, this paper analyzes the specific cultural and historical factors which may contribute to the urban-rural education divide and offers solutions. It is discovered that Confucian culture and the history of the Cultural Revolution are the primary causes of the disparity in education between China's urban and rural populations. At the same time, some historical policies of rural migrant workers may also cause the problem of left-behind children and hence have a negative effect on the disparity between rural and urban areas. China's economic policies, government propaganda, setting some boarding schools in cities, and certain poverty alleviation policies play a significant role in narrowing the education disparity between China's urban and rural populations. It also needs more supervision and long-term stability policies to ensure the future development of the education system in rural areas.

From Classical Neurobiological Conception to Quantum One. Critical Revision

Probably no theory in the history of science has produced such a profound cultural and scientific revolution as is determined by quantum mechanics. Founded around 1920 by illustrious physicists, all Nobel Prize winners, it has completely subverted the conception of matter and the universe. The theory that all matter is made up of atoms has already been formulated by Greek philosophers, starting with Democritus. Quantum mechanics provided a description based on a new conception of the elementary structure of atoms, and formulated the fundamental laws to which atoms obey. Quantum theory has obtained the unanimous and shared consent of the scientific world, although some aspects have not been definitively confirmed. Strengthened by the universal acceptance of his theories, quantum mechanics claims its intellectual primacy over all the other sciences, and the scientific world seems to grant it, so much so as to archive all the knowledge and achievements gathered in its thousand-year history. From the epistemological point of view all established theories are worthy of consideration and must be shared and accepted until proven groundless. Dating, quantum mechanics still enjoys the consent of many scientists, but this does not mean that it can claim to be the repository of all truth, based on an unacceptable and anti-scientific syllogism for which: A) all organic and inorganic matter is formed by atoms and molecules; B) quantum mechanics has founded theories and formulas to which atoms and molecules obey; C) accordingly quantum mechanics can control all universal matter. But the presumption of its predominance goes further than willing to dominate living matter. In this article we are going to examine with a sharp criticism, the aberrant and anti-scientific claim of this discipline to dominate not only science but also universal matter. We propose a more moderate and considered vision of the observable natural phenomena and consider them events in continuous evolution, and to adapt our hypotheses and theories with an equal evolutionary approach.

History of the Study of Chinese Traditional Architecture in the 20th Century : Specificity of Tang Dynasty Cult Objects

The relevance of the study is conditioned by the need to study Chinese religious buildings in order to identify the specifics of the construction of temple complexes, to reveal the features inherent in ancient temple buildings. The experience of studying temple complexes of the Tang dynasty in the context of historical research in China in the 20th century is analyzed. The monument of Buddhist Tang architecture — Foguang temple is considered. The socio-economic situation in China in the 20th century formed special conditions for the development of institutes, faculties for the study of temple building. The process of adaptation of architects to the new conditions after the Cultural Revolution was not unequivocal, as most of the temple buildings were destroyed. Only a small part of China's history remained imprinted in cult architecture, which had to be studied. As a result of historical research, new sources appear, and previously unstudied temples are introduced into scientific circulation. Among the Chinese architects of the 20th century were real connoisseurs of Chinese culture, who collected unique objects of ancient architecture, which became part of the world cultural heritage. It is concluded that in each historical epoch of temple building had its own distinctive features; temple architecture became a standard of power and might of emperors of this or that period, allowing us today to judge the achievements and knowledge of ancient architects.

Western life courses challenged in life stories collected in contemporary China.

The life course describes the progression of life as a social role, from birth to death. Traditional Western life-history studies of the life course usually describe a continuous lifeline with occasional interruptions in between. The extraordinary temporal events of the Anti-Japanese War (AJW), Civil War (CW), Great Famine (GF), Cultural Revolution (CR), and the Reform and Opening-up of China in just few decades mean that the life history of contemporary Chinese older adults may be quite different from those of their western peers. The study used qualitative research methods to conduct in-depth interviews with 16 older adults and collect their life stories through a standardized list of questions. Grounded theory was employed to condense, compare, conceptualize, and synthesize patterns within the collected data, approaching the investigation with a "naturalistic" perspective. Based on a generalized analysis of the Interview transcripts, we can find that Chinese old adults' life stories were shaped by recurring exceptional and rapidly changing environmental conditions. The themes and sub-themes of Chinese old adults' life stories were focus on (1) violence, loss of family member, escape and unstable life in their early life which are related to AJW and CW; (2) poverty and starvation in daily life when they were adolescents and young adults which are related to GF; (3) discontinuity, timed opportunities, categorizations in order to split the social relationships and networks in CR. The data also suggest that education is an important part of the life story and that its value changes over time. The discontinuity and instability of the life stories of the Chinese old adults are unexpected according to the dominant Western-influenced life course theories, which enriches life course theory and provides a new perspective for studying the individual life course in a society of constant and rapid change.

Between the mountains, the city, and the world: the microhistory of a ‘Small Third Front’ Chinese arsenal during Revolution and reform

ABSTRACT This article presents a microhistory of Dongfang Arsenal, a Small Third Front project in Beijing, using archival sources, gazetteers, memoirs compiled by former workers, and oral history. It focuses on how the arsenal’s former workers engaged with socialist modernity and tangibly experienced the changing relationship between China and the outside world. It examines the military-industrial complex as a physical micro-space for employment, political mobilisation, and later a collective memory site. Built upon existing studies of the Third Front and emerging research on negotiated state power in socialist enterprises, the article demonstrates how the Third Front’s internally stratified industrial labour force creatively navigated the physical and institutional urban-rural divide by employing collective bargaining power. It also offers an insight into how an industrial, close-knit community and the society related to it experienced the Cultural Revolution. Additionally, it discusses the Front employees’ experience and the arsenal’s struggle for survival during the transition between various socio-economic regimes, bringing together the history of Maoist revolutionary modernisation and post-Maoist reform.

Writing in solidarity: Gu Cangwu, Cultural Revolution, Cold War

ABSTRACT This article will shed light on the remarkable yet overlooked influence of the Cultural Revolution on renowned Hong Kong writer Gu Cangwu during the Cold War period. Through scrutinizing his untapped works in the 1970s, the article will argue that Gu Cangwu incorporated a Communist perspective in his observations of pivotal local, national, and global events in his poems and writings. Gu’s untapped works show his attempts to use Cultural Revolution ideology and Chinese nationalism as a source of resistance to British colonialism amid Hong Kong’s Defending Diaoyu Island Movement in 1971, a movement in which international recognition of Communist China at the United Nation sparked Gu’s nationalistic fervor and encouraged him to embrace critical realism. The article also puts Gu’s sympathetic portrayals of the Cultural Revolution and Vietnam War in juxtaposition with his decadent narratives of the 1972 Hong Kong landslides, showing that his effort to build local solidarity with Chinese nationals and the people suffering in the global conflict of the Cold War was based on a stance in opposition to capitalist-imperialist-colonial aggression. More significantly, transcending the simplistic Cold War binary between communist totalitarianism versus liberal capitalism and foregrounding the specific experience of the Cold War in the Hong Kong context, the case of Gu Cangwu demonstrates that the production of Hong Kong literature in the 1970s occurred at the intersection between local ideological contestation and global Cold War tensions.

Psychedelic Refugee: The League for Spiritual Discovery, the 1960s Cultural Revolution, and 23 Years on the Run by Rosemary Woodruff Leary (review)

Psychedelic Refugee: The League for Spiritual Discovery, the 1960s Cultural Revolution, and 23 Years on the Run by Rosemary Woodruff Leary (review)

Comparison of Traditional Chinese Thought and Xi Jinping's Understanding of Governance through the Hundred Schools of Thought

Xi Jinping, often referred to as the contemporary Mao, has introduced numerous development plans on a national and global scale since taking office as President in 2012. Having learned lessons from the disastrous Cultural Revolution which aimed to implant socialist ideas in China and resulted in the deaths of millions, Xi Jinping declared a new era in governance by emphasizing the importance of "Chinese Characteristics". Now, a Chinese government that has overcome the 'century of humiliation’ and is capable of confronting Western powers through a concerted effort, has successfully integrated Marxist-Leninist ideology with Chinese characteristics. Xi Jinping's philosophy, which combines modern requirements with the principles of traditional Chinese governance, has become part of the CCP ideology. Xi's comprehension of governance stems from traditional Chinese philosophy. The Warring Principalities era and the emergence of the Hundred Schools of Thought are the foundations of Xi's understanding of governance. This article investigates the heritage and evolution of Xi Jinping's governing ideology from ancient Chinese traditional beliefs, using the example of the "Hundred Schools of Thought". The article aims to explore the value implications of traditional Chinese governance thought in contemporary political life. Additionally, it seeks to promote the essence of ancient Chinese traditional culture, investigate its relevance in modern times, reveal patterns of cultural development, and offer guidance on how to carry forward and inherit the traditional Chinese cultural perspective.

Abrupt change in humpback whale song from Brazil suggests cultural revolutions may occur in the South Atlantic

Abrupt change in humpback whale song from Brazil suggests cultural revolutions may occur in the South Atlantic

A Comparative Study on the Compromise and Struggle Between the False Overlord and the Real Concubine in Farewell My Concubine Based on Hegels Tragedy Aesthetics

In the study of the text Farewell to My Concubine, most of the studies are on the interpretation of different characters and the direction of drama film art and Chinese literature. The author believes that the tragedy of Different characters in the Farewell to My Concubine tragic theory can be used as a novel and necessary research direction. Hegels Aesthetics Tragic Theory is based on his philosophical theory. He uses conflict and reconciliation, regarding the generation and solving of tragedy as an aliasing uniform dialectical process, having special historical value and research significance, used to analyze the Farewell to My Concubine, it can enable readers to understand and appreciate the tragedy while producing more profound thinking. The original book embodies the turmoil of the troubled times, the distinct time passages, the span of time. From the melee period at the end of the Qing Dynasty, the anti-Japanese period, to the Kuomintang rule period or the liberation War period, and finally to the Cultural Revolution period, and the new China period. Named after the Peking Opera name, it not only reflects the author Li Bihuas thinking about the traditional culture represented by Peking Opera, but also contains the emotion about the situation and fate of Peking Opera actors under the changing times. There is also the relationship between ideal and reality, which is often discussed in literature. In the later film remake, director Chen Kaige not only tells the content of the original well, but also uses the contrast of cold and warm colors from a visual point of view; Light intensity and side light and backlight; The joys and sorrows of musical tunes; In different scenes, the closed, framed, and Chinese-style composition, playsing the story alive.

National tradition as an innovation factor in Guo Wenjing’s chamber opera “Wolf Cub Village”

Statement of the problem. The modern stage of development of Chinese musical theater is associated with a significant role in creative experiment, the search for new artistic means. These processes have gone down in history as an artistic direction under the name “new wave”. It emerged in 1976 as a confrontation with the aftermath of the cultural revolution. It combines trends in the revival of national Chinese traditions and the introduction of modern compositional writing methods. In the works of representatives of this direction, a deep understanding of the uniqueness of the aesthetics of ancient Chinese music, the originality of its rhythm and timbre richness is restored. These features are vividly embodied in the Opera “Wolf Cub Village” by Guo Wenjing (郭文景, born in 1956). The theme of the transformation of traditional Chinese musical art in modern times under the conditions of Western influences and the formation of new Chinese music raises by Chinese researchers in one way or another. But the issue of national tradition as a factor of innovation is considered tangentially. Thus, the subject of the article, which reveals the features of the implementation of the traditional chamber opera “Wolf Cub Village” by Guo Wenjing, is looking up-to-date. Recent research and publications. An Luxin in the dissertation “Research of Guo Wenjing’s musical creativity” (2012) traces the stylistic features of Guo Wenjing’s work and analyzes many of his works, but the reason of significant amount of material studied, the composer’s opera heritage is highlighted in generalized way. Guo Wenjing’s own article (2016) as well as materials published in his book “Noise” (2009), are a valuable source of information about the composer’s idea of the opera. Objectives, methods, and novelty of the research. The purpose of the article is to identify the mechanisms of innovations in the implementation of the national Chinese tradition in Guo Wenjing’s chamber opera “Wolf Cub Village”. The study used methods developed in modern musicology, in particular, theoretical, historical and cultural analysis, as well as the method of theoretical generalization. For the first time, the embodiment of the national tradition in the opera work by the contemporary Chinese composer is considered as a factor of artistic innovations. Research results and conclusion. Guo Wenjing’s appeal to the national traditions of Chinese music is associated with the two way orientation of the “new wave” flow that emerged in Chinese professional composing music. We are talking about transforming deep Chinese national traditions along with the use of modern compositional techniques. It is proved that in European opera this approach becomes an artistically effective means of updating the modern musical language. As a result of the study, Guo Wenjing’s opera “Wolf Cub Village” revealed a number of innovations, the source of which was the Chinese verbal language and traditional music. These include: a) the invention of new methods of vocal and declamatory articulation of the Chinese language, the expansion of the range of vocal and performing techniques, the creation of a special style of singing that combines European bel canto and intense high declamatory singing of the Chinese traditional opera; b) the use of features of the sound and semantics of instrumental accompaniment of traditional Chinese opera and the formation of a new poly-national composition of the orchestra; c) the introduction of characters into the opera that saturate the plot with figurative intonations of Chinese folklore; d) the use of metro-tempo models (banshi) of Chinese traditional opera. By introducing the elements of Chinese traditional music into the opera, the composer expanded the instrumental and vocal timbre palettes, enriched the work with a bright national flavor and significantly diversified the techniques of musical expressiveness of Western-style opera.

An Historical Analysis of Srimanta Sankardeva's Contribution to Language, Literature, and Culture of Assam

The Assamese polymath Srimanta Sankardeva (1449 CE-1568 CE) made a substantial contribution to the development of language, literature and culture in the 15th and 16th centuries of Assam. He was a trailblazer in the fields of education, language, literature, art and culture. Saint Sankaradeva's Neo-Vaishnavite movement is a massive socio-religious and cultural revolution in Assam that plays a significant part in forging close social ties among the state's citizens. Sankardeva's contributions have improved the language, literature, and socio-cultural environment of Assam, however the language has lost some of its original traditions within the Assamese community, for which he most likely supported the Neo-Vaishnavist movement. This is seen in the current cultural setting of Assam, where a plethora of other cultural activities that were inspired by the saint-scholar have erupted and became part of the original customs. Furthermore, several histories of Sankardeva have misrepresented some details of his life.

Dr Ambedkar’s Method of Social Change: Debating Means and Ends

Ambedkar’s method of social change is about its commensurability with critical methods leads the legitimatization over radical means. The preconceived method devoid of reality was not only failed but also disastrous. The theory and practice are an integral part of the theory of social change of Ambedkar. It has laid the contrast between two methods of social change that is Marxist and Pragmatist. Ambedkar’s method of social change influenced from pragmatism. It was not only the relevance of his thought but also the legitimacy of his methods used for bringing about change in Indian society. Ambedkar’s Critical method for social change upholds the idea of democracy and justice while radical violent means which emphasized on the equality without much space for democracy and freedom of speech delegitimized the purpose of communist society. The article is divided into two major parts; first part dealt with the critical theory and its primary concern for social change. It also contrasted with Ambedkar’s method of social change. Second section focused briefly on the debate between Marxist Trotsky and pragmatist John Dewey over use of means for achieving the ends. The experiment of the Cultural Change in the case of Great Proletariat Cultural Revolution in China by Mao Zedong and the methods of the Cultural Revolution proposed by Ambedkar is also part of the discussion where two experiments for bringing about cultural changes in Chinese and Indian society. The legitimacy of the democratic means remains unbeatable in the case of Ambedkar while violent radical means lost the legitimacy in Chinese experience. The struggle of Ambedkar who secured the rights for untouchable in the Indian constitution was not less than a revolution. Banning practice of Untouchability in any form and making it the punishable offence was the victory of the democratic means.

Literary translation during the Chinese Cultural Revolution

Literary translation during the Chinese Cultural Revolution