Revival Of Trade Research Articles

Revival of trade in the Tambov province in the early 1920s

Importance. The p roblem o f r estoring t rade i n a r ural p rovince a fter i ts p rohibition during the years of “war communism” is considered. Without a commodity-producing, well-organized trading network, it was impossible to develop industry, agriculture and minimal satisfaction of the needs of the population. The study of the process of trade revival in the early 1920s shows not only the practical experience of restoring exchange operations in the agricultural region of the country, but also the state of the economy of the Tambov province as a whole.Research methods. Published and unpublished sources are used. The historical and comparative method allows us to reveal the essence of the phenomena under study on the basis of available facts within the narrow time limits of the new economic policy.Results and Discussion. The problems of restoring trade in the Tambov province with a predominantly rural population are shown. The conditions of the trade’s revival are considered, the peculiarities of the state cooperative and private trade's organization are revealed, the trading enterprises’ specialization is shown. The transition difficulties to the elements of a market economy are presented against the background of the economic life of an agricultural region. The dynamics of trade development in the early 1920s has been determined.Conclusion. The trade restoration in the Tambov province was complicated by the economic crisis, devastation, falling productivity of peasant farms, and low purchasing power of the population. With the new course's announcement of economic policy, petty bazaar trade begins to revive. Public- cooperative organizations had difficulty competing in the market with private trade and central trusts. The largest retail department stores in Tambov city and the county towns belonged to state and cooperative trade organizations. In cities, large-scale indoor trade grew more systematically, while in rural areas the trading apparatus was revived much more slowly. Small-scale universal trade prevailed in rural areas. Since 1923, the Bolshevik state has sought to establish control over the movement of goods from producer to consumer.

Tributary World-Ecologies, Part II

This essay—the second in a two part series—reconceptualizes the High Medieval Mediterranean World as a tributary world-ecology. Area Studies view the High Medieval Mediterranean as a culturally fragmented world, while the Commercialization Theorists only unite these fragments externally through trade relations. In contrast, Marxist Theorists almost exclusively focus on Medieval Europe through production relations. I argue that the High Medieval Mediterranean can be theorized as a tributary world-ecology. I advance two interrelated arguments. First, I underline the socio-ecological similarities and differences between the North Sea (addressed in Part I) and the Mediterranean Worlds. The Mediterranean world-ecology was premised upon the breakdown of world-imperial redistribution mechanisms and localization of peasant exploitation. This was exemplified by the development of iqta’, pronoia and similar land-tenure regimes across the Mediterranean World. The localization peasant exploitation, however, did not result in autarchy, but rather in the formation of a world-market. In fact, novel agrarian relations, coupled with the climatological upturn and technological innovations, led to the growth of surpluses in the hands of the aristocracies. This in turn stimulated artisanal production and revival of trade. Consequently, the Mediterranean World, like the North Sea World, witnessed further geographical integration and economic growth. Second, I emphasize the similarities and differences between the crises of the North Sea and the Mediterranean Worlds. Their socio-ecological relations reached their limits when the climate began to cool and destabilize, and organizational innovations could no longer produce sufficient surpluses. Consequently, both world-ecologies collapsed, finding its clearest expression in the Black Death. In turn, the Mediterranean, just like the end of the Roman period, disintegrated. The Western Mediterranean and the North Seas were integrated on the basis of capitalist productive and commercial networks, resulting in the birth of European capitalist world-ecology. In contrast, the Eastern Mediterranean would be reintegrated on the basis of the tributary networks of the Ottoman World-Empire.

The Discourse of “Globalization” in Relation to the History of the Mongol Empire and the Golden Horde

In the first quarter of the 21st century, the verbal model of the Mongolian Empire as a “globalizing power” firmly entered scholarly discourse. Modern processes of globalization are compelling the study of similar manifestations in the past. The systematic method of historical modeling allows you to create a verbal model describing globalization, for example, in the 13th century. Thus, to introduce the concept of “globalization” in relation to the history of the Mongol Empire, the provision on the worldwide nature of the political, economic and ideological structures of the Genghisid state is used. The concept of “Mongolian/Horde globalism” is becoming widespread in the modern discursive field. Thus, during 2006–2020, the concept of “Mongolian globalism” became widespread not only in popular scientific works, but also in scientific articles and monographs. It is quite natural and natural that the largest conquests of the Genghisids in history led to the creation of a powerful state in which unified centralized control was established, including over transcontinental trade routes. The unified management contributed to the security of trade routes and, as a result, to the revival of trade and information exchange. Undoubtedly, the trade aspect, which is most clearly traced in the economy of the Mongol Empire and the Golden Horde, has a unifying and globalizing feature. However, its scientific assessment, as well as the identification of the nature and essence of the “Mongolian phenomenon” requires more in-depth research. The article explores the features of the formulated conceptual model, the accuracy and significance of the concepts involved for all participants of the discursive field. As a result, it is concluded that there is no reliable justification for the signs, forms and patterns of the development of the phenomenon of “Mongolian globalization” at the moment.

MARKETING MANAGEMENT OF PRICES AND PROMOTION OF ENTERPRISES WHEN THEY ENTER THE EU MARKETS

In determining the place of the complex of marketing communications and prices, it is necessary to build on the semantic and determinant components of demand. The selection and manifestation of the components of the marketing mix is influenced by the determinants of demand, while taking into account the cost sensitivity of demand. A more informed determination of the cost and hourly parameters of modern international financial transactions can be achieved on the basis of wide knowledge of the mechanisms for the functioning of international finance, trade, taxes and duties. Consideration of the image component in the price is very appropriate in conditions of significant competition and information market influences. A dynamic approach to marketing pricing should be widely used when distributing industrial products to target markets of different countries, since their market conditions are too variable and need to adapt the price complex accordingly. It is proposed to consider pricing as one of the generalizing processes of marketing activities of enterprises, which allows to obtain the desired financial results and achieve a high level of market status. In the context of interactive marketing business interaction, it is advisable to deepen and improve the methods, procedures, mechanisms and strategies for pricing products of an industrial enterprise, which should take place on marketing competitive principles taking into account the configuration of the fundamental forces of the market and information support. The work proposes a model of marketing price management of enterprises when they enter the EU markets, which is based on determining competitive opportunities for domestic enterprises, studying the competitive status of the environment, outlining consumer requests for product assortment, establishing the most appropriate marketing communications, evaluating strategic marketing installations, modeling the price management function, and allows to increase the marketing efficiency of operational-commercial management of enterprise. The article improved the theoretical and methodological principles of marketing price management and promotion of Ukrainian enterprises when they enter the EU markets in conditions of interactive business interaction. The communication provision of social and behavioural determinants of “green” interaction between economic agents of Ukraine and Poland will contribute to the revival of trade. Partnership communication in this case should increasingly be in the plane of Ukrainian and Polish linguistic business culture. Keywords: marketing, management, pricing, enterprises, promotion, strategy, model.

Geç Orta Çağ’da Fransisken ve Dominiken Mimarisi

Dilenci tarikatlar, Geç Orta Çağ İtalya ve Fransa’sında ticaret ve kentlerin canlanması, manastır cemaatlerinde reform ve kutsallık anlayışının değişmesi sonucu ortaya çıktı. Bu çalışmanın amacı Fransisken ve Dominikenler’in özgün mimari anlayışlarını ve bunun İtalyan komünleri ile Gotik mimari üzerindeki etkilerini incelemektir. Dilenci tarikatlar, Sistersiyan yönetmeliği ile Sistersiyan mimarisini benimsediler. Üst örtüsü ahşap kirişli nef sistemini çapraz tonozlu, düz biten koro yeri ile ana altarın yanında şapellerle tamamladılar. 13. yüzyılın sonundan itibaren diğer kiliseler de bu yapı tipini benimseyince dilenci tarikatlar Gotik mimarinin Batı’da homojen bir görünüm sunmasını sağladı. İtalya’daki tüccar ve bankerler mezar şapellerinin hamiliğini üstlendiklerinde komünün katedraline rakip kült mekanlar oluştu. Cemaat rahipleri tepki olarak kendi kiliselerinde de uygun gömü alanları yarattılar. Anıtsal dilenci kiliseleri, içinde bulundukları kentsel mekanı da dönüştürdü. Biraderler kiliselerin çevresindeki arazileri çeşitli ihtiyaçlarını gidermek için satın aldılar. Bu kiliselere açılan sokaklar genişletilip meydanlar inşa edildi. Fransisken ve Dominiken vaizler buralara kürsüler koyup vaaz vererek geleneksel Hristiyan ritüel mekanlarını değiştirdiler.

PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS OF COOPERATION OF THE BORDER REGIONS OF UKRAINE, ROMANIA, MOLDOVA AND SLOVAKIA

The purpose of the paper is to outline the legal framework for the development of Ukrainian- Moldovan, Ukrainian-Slovak and Ukrainian-Romanian transborder regions (TBR), in particular in the context of intergovernmental agreements, national legislation on issues of cross-border cooperation, agreements between local authorities and regional cross-border regulatory support. The international cooperation of the Western region of Ukraine from the side of the authorities is focused mainly on the western vector, on relations with Poland. In our view, such regional policy leads to increasing regional differences in the socio-economic development of the Lviv and Ivano-Frankivsk regions, in particular their northern and southern parts. The intensification of the cross-border cooperation with Romania will create promising conditions for the transformation of a number of southern regions of the Carpathian region into a zone of accelerated economic development. This can be done through the development of transport, tourism and recreation, finance, logistics infrastructure, which will increase the attractiveness of the territories. And for this it is necessary to create an economic climate in the southern districts of the region, which would help attract foreign investment, especially Romanian, possibly by creating special or free economic zones there. The region has significant untapped potential of the Ukrainian-Romanian interaction that can be harnessed. The Ukrainian-Slovak and Ukrainian-Moldovan cooperation should also be strengthened in the region, the latter especially for the purpose of the European integration of Ukraine and Moldova. To this end, the article outlines the regulatory framework for the development of the Ukrainian-Moldovan, Ukrainian-Slovak and Ukrainian-Romanian transborder regions, in particular in the context of interstate agreements, national legislation on cross-border cooperation, agreements between local authorities and regional transborder security. The article describes the current state of subregional cooperation within the transborder regions, identifies the problematic issues of such cooperation, as well as reveals its content through the lens of the Euroregional cooperation. Methodogy. The dialectical method of scientific knowledge, method of analysis and synthesis, comparative method, method of data generalization are used in the paper. Results of the research. A description of the current state of subregional cooperation within the framework of the TBR is given, the problems of such cooperation are revealed, and its content is revealed through the prism of Euroregional cooperation. The key international projects of the development of the transborder regions were identified and their content and significance were analyzed for the improvement of the ecological safety of TBR, their entrepreneurship development, activation of innovation activities, the development of the border infrastructure, deepening of cultural interaction, improvement of urban development, revival of trade and investment activity in the above-mentioned transborder regions. The perspective directions of development of these TBRs are determined.

The revival of trade in the Arab Maghreb Union (AMU)

In particular, transport infrastructure can be seen as a lever for economic and social development, as it can be an important accelerator of the regional integration process in the southern Mediterranean. Several studies have shown that the improvement of infrastructure and the redevelopment of ports, airports, railways and roads have positive effects on economic growth, employment, industry and competitiveness. More importantly, improving the flow of goods and people illustrates a major indicator of regional integration. In many countries, economic recovery cannot begin without upgrades to the infrastructure. In this Communication, we have shown the important role of the transport sector and its major contribution to improving intra-AMU trade. The results show that the transport factor in the southern region is still weak and unable to advance its integration process. This weakness will encourage these countries to pursue an adequate strategy that will advance the process of regional integration and the development of production capacities and infrastructure in order to achieve the objectives of their economic growth.

«Группа двадцати» и БРИКС: тенденции и политика в области торговли и инвестиций

International trade and investments declined sharply in the aftermath of the 2008 financial crisis. To coordinate policy responses in the wake of this crisis, the Group of Twenty (G20) was elevated to the leaders’ level and the BRICS grouping of Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa was founded as a summit to gather leaders from the most important emerging economies. This contribution reviews the work of both fora to restore trade and investment. We show that, despite efforts to stimulate cross-border trade and investments, neither has returned to pre-crisis levels. This is especially the case regarding international investment for the G20 members, although the data show a revival of trade. In general, BRICS members have been able to recover more quickly. Although their decisions have not always been implemented by members, the G20 and BRICS have proven to be effective fora for coordinating efforts and compliance has been rather high. However, this contribution argues that more can be done, especially regarding investments. The future will tell whether these two bodies will continue to be complimentary and whether they will be able to withstand protectionist and nationalist reflexes.

СОЦІАЛЬНО-ЕКОНОМІЧНИЙ РОЗВИТОК КИЄВА У XVIII ст.

During the 18th century there have been substantial changes in all areas of political, economic and sociocultural development in early modern Ukrainian state. Mostly transformational processes in Russia, which entered the era of absolutism, conditioned them. The comprehensible intention of the imperial regime was the unification of social life on controlled territory, that affected infrastructure development and urban life of the Hetman State. Craft production in Kyiv of 18th century continued to operate under the old guild system. An essential feature of guild activity was regulation of production and sale of craft goods that greatly restricted their development. However, if in the 40s the number of workers in the craft field reached about two thousand people, then in twenty years their number doubled. The most numerous were cobbler, tailor, furrier and blacksmith shops. The concentration of production in the hands of wealthy business persons created the foundation for the emergence and development of manufactory, especially in such fields as: distillation, glass production, bricks production, silk, and food industry. These enterprises usually employed workers, which were interested in the results of their labor. The development of craft and manufacturing production, along with agriculture, animal husbandry and gardening led to revival of trade in Kyiv. The vast majority of manufactured and agricultural products were sold at Podilskyi market. Three times a year in the big strip mall the grand fairs were held — Soborna, Mykolaivska and Uspenska, which lasted for 8 days. The geography and trade relations of Kyiv with foreign countries expanded. Except Russian merchants, merchant caravans from Balkan countries came to town, from where transit of oriental goods were brought in.

Manifestations of Economic Integration Consequences in Lithuania Foreign Trade

Changes of directions and volumes of Lithuanian foreign trade during the last fifteen years are analyzed in the article. They are understood as the consequences of Lithuania’s integration into the EU, which are provided by economic integration theories. The paper consists of introduction, two parts and conclusions. The first part identifies the changes of Lithuanian foreign trade (trade creation and trade diversion) as part of the whole integration consequences system. On the basis of statistic data the scale and directions of trade creation and diversion caused by particular outline of Lithuania’s integration – European Treaty enforcement in 1998 and entering the European Union in 2004 – are revealed in the second part. In both cases certain changes occurred in foreign trade – trade diversion refusing one partner and orienting to others as well as trade revival with particular partners. Those changes are named as the proof of Lithuania’s economy as the whole and its subjects (enterprises) ability to react to the changes caused by integration processes, which is disclosed in the conclusions.

Section II. Prospects for North America and Japan

Our projection for GDP growth in the US this year, at 2.4 per cent, is broadly unchanged relative to April. However, the underlying composition of GDP has shifted toward stronger consumer spending, weaker business investment and weaker trade growth. Stronger consumption stems from the implementation of the fiscal package that was approved by Congress in May. Downward revisions to investment and trade growth reflect the unexpectedly sharp declines recorded in the first quarter of the year. Business investment declined by 1.1 per cent in the first quarter, while the volume of exports of goods and services fell by 0.3 per cent and imports fell by 1.6 per cent. This weak outcome is thought to reflect the high level of uncertainty faced in the run up to the war in Iraq. As this uncertainty has now receded to a large degree, some recovery is anticipated in the second quarter. Monthly indicators suggest that consumer demand remained strong in the second quarter of 2003, although industrial production declined and business orders have continued to disappoint. The volume of exports in the three months to May were 9.2 per cent higher than in the previous three months, while imports rose by 7.4 per cent, pointing to a marked revival of trade in the second quarter. Despite the recovery of trade and positive outlook for consumer spending, the bleaker outlook for investment has caused us to revise our projections for GDP growth in 2004 down by ½ percentage point to 3 per cent. We have also revised down our projections for average GDP growth between 2005-2009 to 2.3 per cent per annum, as higher inflation and planned tax rises will weigh on consumer spending.

Money and Its Use in Medieval Europe.

List of maps List of tables List of graphs Acknowledgements Introduction Part I. Before the Commercial Revolution: 1. Roman-Barbarian discontinuity 2. The appearance of the denier and the revival of trade 3. 'Feudal' deniers and 'Viking' dirhams 4. Saxon silver and the expansion of minting Part II. The Commercial Revolution of the Thirteenth Century: 5. New silver c.1160-c.1330 6. The balance of payments and the movement of silver 7. European silver and African gold 8. New mints 9. Ingots of silver 10. New money 11. The place of money in the commercial revolution of the thirteenth century Part III. The Late Middle Ages: 12. The victory of gold 13. The scourge of debasement 14. The money of Europe around 1400 15. The bullion-famines of the Late Middle Ages 16. Money on the eve of the price revolution Conclusion Appendices Coin index General index.

The Caribbean Basin Initiative: A United States/Caribbean Trade Revival

The Caribbean Basin Initiative: A United States/Caribbean Trade Revival

The Revival of Trade between the "Communist Bloc" and the West

Since the death of Stalin, trade between the Western democracies and East European Communist countries has been on the increase. The economies of the Communist countries are evolving in a direction of lessened rigidity and greater diversity. The countries of West Europe, with a greater dependence on trade than the United States, have pursued trade with the Communist countries more than has the United States. The policy of the United States government is to expand East-West trade in peaceful goods. There are political as well as economic advantages to be gained by such trade. The President needs legislative authority to be able best to use trade relations with East Europe most effectively in the na tional interest. Such legislation would permit the United States to negotiate a removal of tariff discrimination in return for benefits from the Communist countries, such as nondiscriminatory treatment for United States businessmen, with respect to market and trading access, and agreement on settlement of disputes. Meaningful agreements between a free market system and state trading systems will not be easy to reach. However, the free market countries of West Europe have worked out agreements that have been mutually profitable. There is no reason why the United States cannot do the same, to our economic and political advantage.

The Emergence and Consolidation of the Monarchies of Enarea and Jimma in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century

In most of Ethiopia the Galla preserved, to a great extent, their ‘democratic’ traditional social and political institutions until the twentieth century. However, in the second quarter of the nineteenth century, one hears of five Galla centralized despotic monarchies in southwestern Ethiopia. It seems that this was the culmination of a long process by which the authority of the traditional officeholders among the Macha Galla was gradually strengthened. As the Macha became more sedentary, they were greatly influenced by the Sidama among whom they lived and by Muslim merchants from north Ethiopia who settled in the area from the beginning of the nineteenth century. The most famous among the Macha monarchies were Limmu-Enarea and Jimma-Kakka. It is believed that Enarea was established by Bofo (Abba Gomol), the son of Boku, in the first or possibly in the second decade of the nineteenth century. Jimma-Kakka emerged in the 1830s, after a number of Jimma tribes were united by Abba Jifar-Sana.One is led to believe that the monarchical system was adopted by the Macha tribes in order that they might be better able to take advantage of the revival of trade between southwestern Ethiopia and the coast. Enarea and Jimma clashed continuously, from the late 1830s, over the issue of the revenue from this trade. Finally, in the third quarter of the century Jimma emerged triumphant and Enarea sank again to obscurity.It is intriguing to speculate on the possible crucial influence of commerce, aided by Sidama tradition and Islam, on the emergence of the Macha Galla monarchies.

Port Town and Hinterland in the Pacific Islands

American AnthropologistVolume 62, Issue 4 p. 586-592 Free Access Port Town and Hinterland in the Pacific Islands1 ALEXANDER SPOEHR, ALEXANDER SPOEHR Bishop Museum, HonoluluSearch for more papers by this author ALEXANDER SPOEHR, ALEXANDER SPOEHR Bishop Museum, HonoluluSearch for more papers by this author First published: August 1960 https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1960.62.4.02a00030Citations: 7 1 This paper is a product of the author's participation in the Tri-Institutional Pacific Program (Yale University, University of Hawaii, Bishop Museum), supported by a grant from the Carnegie Corporation of New York. AboutReferencesRelatedInformationPDFPDF ToolsExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessClose modalShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL REFERENCES CITED Beaglehole, E. 1957 Social change in the South Pacific; Rarotonga and Aitutaki. London, Allen and Unwin. Belshaw, C. S. 1952 Port Moresby canoe traders. Oceania 23: 26– 39. Belshaw, C. S. 1954 Changing Melanesia. Melbourne, Oxford University Press. Belshaw, C. S. 1957 The great village: the economic and social welfare of Hanuabada, an urban community in Papua. London, Routledge and Paul. Bennett, J. M. 1957 Vila and Santo: New Hebridean towns. Geographical Studies 4: 116– 128. Davidson, J. W. and Jean Guiart 1959 Research project in urbanization and industrialization in the Pacific islands. In Social development in the South Pacific. Noumea, South Pacific Commission Technical Paper 122. Danielsson, Bengt 1955 Work and life on Raroia. Uppsala, Almquist and Wiksells. Firth, R. 1953 Social changes in the Western Pacific. Journal of the Royal Society of Arts 51: 803– 819. Firth, R. 1954 Money, work, and social change in Indo-Pacific economic systems. International Social Science Bulletin 6: 1– 11. Guiart, Jean 1957 Tahiti, Nouvelle Calédonie, Nouvelle Hebrides. Paris, Berger-Levrault. Hogbin, H. I. 1951 Transformation scene: the changing culture of a New Guinea village. London, Routledge and Paul. Keesing, Felix M. 1934 Modern Samoa. London, Allen and Unwin. Keesing, Felix M. 1941 The south seas in the modern world. New York, John Day. Keesing, Felix M. 1953 Social anthropology in Polynesia. London, Oxford University Press. Keesing, Felix M. and M. M. Keesing 1956 Elite communication in Samoa: a study of leadership. Stanford, Stanford University Press. Mead, Margaret 1956 New lives for old: cultural transformation—Manus, 1928–1953. New York, William Morrow. Oliver, D. L. 1951 The Pacific islands. Cambridge, Harvard University Press. Pirenne, Henri 1925 Medieval cities: their origins and the revival of trade. Princeton, Princeton University Press. Stanner, W. E. H. 1953 The south seas in transition: a study of post-war rehabilitation and reconstruction in three British Pacific dependencies. Sydney, Australasian Publishing Company. Weigend, G. C. 1958 Some elements in the study of port geography. Geographical Review 48: 185– 200. After this paper was submitted for publication, an important monograph on culture change in the Pacific appeared. Force, Roland W. 1960 Leadership and culture change in Palau. Fieldiana: Anthropology 50. Chicago Natural History Museum. Citing Literature Volume62, Issue4August 1960Pages 586-592 ReferencesRelatedInformation RecommendedUrbanization in the Pacific and GuamLarry W. Mayo, City & SocietyWaterfront Revitalization in Postindustrial Port Cities of North AmericaR. Timothy Sieber, City & SocietyA Divided Provincial Town: The Development from Ethnic to Class Segmentation in Kupang, West TimorSYLVIA TIDEY, City & SocietyThe Invisible Hinterland: Hong Kong's Reliance on Southern Guangdong ProvinceGregory Eliyu Guldin, City & Society

Trade Revival in a Depressed Area.

Trade Revival in a Depressed Area.

Trade Revival in a Depressed Area.

Trade Revival in a Depressed Area.

Science and Unemployment

IN his presidential address to the Institution of Electrical Engineers delivered on October 24, Mr. J. M. Kennedy dealt mainly with the subject of the distribution of electricity. It is obvious that hand labour is gradually being replaced by mechanical power, and that a large fraction of the labour so displaced is unable to find further employment. There are certain depressed areas in which unemployment is particularly rife owing to the dying out of industries or their transfer to more suitable areas. It is now generally recognised that lack of forethought and absence of planning for the future during the recent rapid industrial development has been one of the main factors that has allowed these industrial troubles to develop. Absence of initiative and the policy of letting things drift often prevent real progress from being made. Mr. Kennedy discussed the relation between advancing applications of science and unemployment. He does not agree with those who fear that any steps taken to plan industry so as to re-absorb the present number of unemployed will cause difficulty in the event of a great revival of trade. So far as the electrical industry is concerned, those employed in manufacturing, contracting and supply have grown in number from 200,000 to 330,000 in the last ten years. Scientific and technical development soon find a remedy for any potential shortage of work by increasing the rate at which power is developed and utilised. He reminded his hearers that electricity is a commodity in everyday use, and that it is unnecessary to fill up complex forms before it can be supplied. If the present rate of progress is to be maintained, more intensive effort and in many cases an appreciable reduction of tariffs is required.

Telephone Development

THE economic blizzard from which the world is now suffering has affected the rate of telephone development in Great Britain to a smaller extent than in any other of the principal nations. Sir Thomas Purves states that the net increase per annum in Great Britain in recent years has been about 125,000 stations. In the last complete year (1931–32) it fell to 84,000. Nevertheless, it is the largest increase recorded in any country of the world for the same period. For the whole of Europe, outside of Great Britain, the net increase was less than 200,000. In some countries the number of cessations of service exceeds the number of new subscribers and a net loss is registered. In North America, for example, the net loss is about 550,000 stations. For the current year, it is probable that there will be a net increase in Great Britain of about 80,000 and that many of the countries of Europe will show actual losses. In America there will be a large loss. If a revival of trade occurs, the telephone development of Great Britain will go forward by leaps and bounds. In the matter of underground, telegraph and telephone cables, Great Britain has been from the first a pioneer. For building open telegraph and telephone lines it is still necessary to depend on Norway and Sweden for slow-grown raw timber. English and Scottish mountain pine and Canadian and Australian timber have proved disappointing. The use of poles of metal and concrete has been investigated on numerous occasions, but so far the cost of these alternatives has proved prohibitive. The timber used for general construction purposes is obtained entirely from home and Empire sources. The whole of the extensive radio plant and apparatus for long-distance communication used by the Post Office is of British manufacture.