Reverse Land Degradation Research Articles

Reversing land degradation through grasses: a systematic meta-analysis in the Indian tropics

Abstract. Although intensive agriculture is necessary to sustain the world's growing population, accelerated soil erosion contributes to a decrease in the environmental health of ecosystems at local, regional and global scales. Reversing the process of land degradation using vegetative measures is of utmost importance in such ecosystems. The present study critically analyzes the effect of grasses in reversing the process of land degradation using a systematic review. The collected information was segregated under three different land use and land management situations. Meta-analysis was applied to test the hypothesis that the use of grasses reduces runoff and soil erosion. The effect of grasses was deduced for grass strip and in combination with physical structures. Similarly, the effects of grasses were analyzed in degraded pasture lands. The overall result of the meta-analysis showed that infiltration capacity increased approximately 2-fold after planting grasses across the slopes in agricultural fields. Grazing land management through a cut-and-carry system increased conservation efficiencies by 42 and 63 % with respect to reduction in runoff and erosion, respectively. Considering the comprehensive performance index (CPI), it has been observed that hybrid Napier (Pennisetum purpureum) and sambuta (Saccharum munja) grass seem to posses the most desirable attributes as an effective grass barrier for the western Himalayas and Eastern Ghats, while natural grass (Dichanthium annulatum) and broom grass (Thysanolaena maxima) are found to be most promising grass species for the Konkan region of the Western Ghats and the northeastern Himalayan region, respectively. In addition to these benefits, it was also observed that soil carbon loss can be reduced by 83 % with the use of grasses. Overall, efficacy for erosion control of various grasses was more than 60 %; hence, their selection should be based on the production potential of these grasses under given edaphic and agro-ecological conditions. The present analysis also indicated that grass must be used as a vegetative strip to maintain soil quality in sloppy arable areas (8.5 Mha) of Indian hilly regions. Similarly, due attention should be paid for establishing grasses in 3 Mha of degraded pasture lands and 3.5 Mha of shifting cultivation areas in India to reverse the land degradation.

STRUCTURED STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT LEADS TO DEVELOPMENT OF MORE DIVERSE AND INCLUSIVE AGROFORESTRY OPTIONS

SUMMARYThere is a lot of interest in the contribution that agroforestry can make to reverse land degradation and create resilient multifunctional landscapes that provide a range of socio-economic benefits. The agroforestry research agenda has been characterized by approaches that promote a few priority tree species, within a restricted set of technological packages. These have often not spread widely beyond project sites, because they fail to take account of fine scale variation in farmer circumstances. New methods are needed to generate diverse sets of agroforestry options that can reconcile production and conservation objectives and embrace varying local conditions across large scaling domains. Here, we document a novel approach that couples local knowledge acquisition with structured stakeholder engagement to build an inclusive way of designing agroforestry options. We applied this approach in the eastern part of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) where armed conflict, erratic governance and poverty have resulted in severe pressure on forests in the Virunga National Park, a global biodiversity hotspot. Around the park, natural resources and land are severely degraded, whereas most reforestation interventions have consisted of exotic monocultures dominated by Eucalyptus species grown as energy or timber woodlots mainly by male farmers with sufficient land to allocate some exclusively to trees. We found that structured stakeholder engagement led to a quick identification of a much greater diversity of trees (more than 70 species) to be recommended for use within varied field, farm and landscape niches, serving the interests of a much greater diversity of people, including women and marginalized groups. The process also identified key interventions to improve the enabling environment required to scale up the adoption of agroforestry. These included improving access to quality tree planting material, capacity strengthening within the largely non-governmental extension system, and collective action to support value capture from agroforestry products, through processing and market interventions. Integrating local and global scientific knowledge, coupled with facilitating broad-based stakeholder participation, resulted in shifting from reliance on a few priority tree species to promoting tree diversity across the Virunga landscape that could underpin more productive and resilient livelihoods. The approach is relevant for scaling up agroforestry more generally.

5. Forests

The past year witnessed major developments in connection with forestry issues that comprised the work of various intergovernmental forums and treaty bodies. There was a Working Group and Special Session conducted in January in New York. A strategic plan was developed for the period 2017–30, and the quadrennial program work of the UNFF for 2017–20 was adopted in April by United Nations General Assembly Resolution A/RES/71/285,286. It provided a structure to the forest-related endeavours of the United Nations (UN) and cooperation and coherence between the affected parties and international arrangements. The sustainable management of forests, as recognized in UN Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 15—sustainably manage forests, combat desertification and halt and reverse land degradation, and halt biodiversity loss—was pointed out as one of the chief concerns and was required for the implementation of the plan by 2030, among other relevant goals. There were six Global Forest Goals (GFGs) and twenty-six associated targets identified to be achieved. The GFGs are universal and voluntary, and themes mirror the policies, measures, and actions of UN forest instruments. The six GFGs agreed on at the special session are, in brief, as follows: ...

Determinants of adoption and disadoption of minimum tillage by cotton farmers in eastern Zambia

Conservation agriculture (CA) is heralded as a means to increase yields and reverse land degradation in sub-Saharan Africa, but low adoption levels have led to concerns about its suitability for smallholder farming systems. Combining data from surveys and semi-structured interviews, we examine farmers’ motivations for adopting CA and the determinants of adoption and disadoption of hand-hoe and oxen-drawn minimum tillage (MT), a key component of CA. Farmers generally hold favorable opinions about MT, though not for its benefits to the soil but primarily for how it reduces crop losses from erratic rainfall. MT use rates in communities with the highest adoption rates are relatively low (12% of cotton area and 20% of maize area) and disadoption is common (25% of all farmers). Many farmers are interested in adopting MT but the available MT technologies do not match their resource endowments. Labor constraints limit use of hand-hoe basins while equipment costs limit ox-ripping. These results show that farmers are not stuck in traditional hoeing and plowing but are carefully evaluating the benefits and costs of adopting MT. Widespread adoption of CA will require adapting MT technologies to match a broader range of resource endowments.

Does Land Tenure Security Promote Manure Use by Farm Households in Vietnam?

Facing widespread poverty and land degradation, Vietnam started a land reform in 1993 as part of its renovation policy package known as “Doi Moi”. This paper examines the impacts of improved land tenure security, via this land reform, on manure use by farm households. As manure potentially improves soil fertility by adding organic matter and nutrients to the soil surface, it might contribute to improving soil productive capacity and reversing land degradation. Random effect regression models are applied to a panel dataset of 133 farm households in the Northern Uplands of Vietnam collected in 1993, 1998, and 2006. The results confirm that land tenure security has positive effects on manure use, but the levels of influence differ depending on whether the land has been privatized or whether the land title has already been issued. In addition, manure use is also influenced by the number of cattle and pigs, the education level and ethnicity of household heads, farm land size and non-farm income. The findings suggest that speeding up land privatization and titling, encouraging cattle and pig rearing, and improving education would promote manure use in farm production. However, careful interpretation of our research findings is required as land privatization, together with economic growth and population pressure, might lead to overuse of farm inputs.

Marshaling Social Responses to Environmental Changes

At the Society for Social Work and Research (SSWR) 2016 conference, the American Academy of Social Work and Social Welfare (AASWSW) will officially announce the 12 Grand Challenges for Social Work (GCSW). AASWSW did a soft rollout of a preliminary set of Grand Challenges at the SSWR 2015 conference. After the 2015 preliminary rollout, additional adjustments were conducted and additional feedback was incorporated in preparation for the official announcement. The introduction of GCSW has the potential to be a watershed event for social work. I previously discussed them in an editorial on the unification and defining of the profession (Williams, 2015). GCSW are committed to developing a scientific base for our profession that supports social resolutions for positive change in several important areas of need (AASWSW, n.d.). Recently, the United Nations (UN) released its goals for 2030 in Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2015). In reviewing the UN 2030 agenda for sustainable development, the reader will notice that many of the UN goals overlap with GCSW (AASWSW, n.d.). This would suggest that the profession is on the right path in developing a comprehensive set of challenges where social work can focus its fiscal and intellectual resources to transform our systems. In this editorial, I would like to highlight one of the GCSW—creating social responses to a changing environment (AASWSW, n.d.). There are three goals in the UN 2030 agenda for sustainable development directly related to this challenge: (1) take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts; (2) conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas, and marine resources for sustainable development; and (3) protect, restore, and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems; sustainably manage forests; combat desertification; and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss (UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2015). Climate change, sustainable use of ecosystems, and biodiversity loss are not generally considered to be areas in which social workers have the skills, knowledge, and abilities to make a significant impact. However, there is a growing literature in social work and social science on sustainable development, biodiversity, and the environment ( Jones & Williams, 2011; Kemp et al., 2015; Kumssa, Jones, & Williams, 2009; Kumssa, Williams, Jones, & Des Marais, 2014; Miller & Hayward, 2014; Peeters, 2012; Swim, Clayton, & Howard, 2011). Creating social responses to environmental changes is one area in which social work can make tremendous impact.

Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss

The proposed 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs) are the result of extensive negotiations undertaken by United Nations Member States in order to agree on the world we want by 2030. The 17 goals span a number of economic, social and environmental dimensions.

Economics of salt‐induced land degradation and restoration

AbstractFood security concerns and the scarcity of new productive land have put productivity enhancement of degraded lands back on the political agenda. In such a context, salt‐affected lands are a valuable resource that cannot be neglected nor easily abandoned even with their lower crop yields, especially in areas where significant investments have already been made in irrigation and drainage infrastructure. A review of previous studies shows a very limited number of highly variable estimates of the costs of salt‐induced land degradation combined with methodological and contextual differences. Simple extrapolation suggests that the global annual cost of salt‐induced land degradation in irrigated areas could be US$ 27.3 billion because of lost crop production. We present selected case studies that highlight the potential for economic and environmental benefits of taking action to remediate salt‐affected lands. The findings indicate that it can be cost‐effective to invest in sustainable land management in countries confronting salt‐induced land degradation. Such investments in effective remediation of salt‐affected lands should form part of a broader strategy for food security and be defined in national action plans. This broader strategy is required to ensure the identification and effective removal of barriers to the adoption of sustainable land management, such as perverse subsidies. Whereas reversing salt‐induced land degradation would require several years, interim salinity management strategies could provide a pathway for effective remediation and further showcase the importance of reversing land degradation and the rewards of investing in sustainable land management.

Reducing Impact of Land Degradation in Tanzania: Do Incentive Market Based Mechanisms Work for Sustainable Land Management?

Governments have traditionally relied on public budgets, bilateral and multilateral cooperation to support sustainable land management (SLM) activities. However, it is becoming evident that such support will not be sufficient neither can be sustainable to reverse land degradation, particularly in dry and degrading lands. Innovative mechanisms to encourage investments in SLM practices and to promote and enable the adoption of good practices in all land use sectors as a means to combat land degradation and address this challenge are needed. The paper addresses the hypothesis that, in Tanzania, impacts of land degradation can be reduced through the application of incentive market based mechanisms that could be implemented by the land users to ensure dual benefits i.e. environmental sustainability and improved human welfare of the land users. Key informants interviews and the desk reviews were the main methodological fronts used in gathering information. In Tanzania the practiced incentive market based mechanisms can be grouped into public payment systems, Open Trading under Regulation, Self Organized Private Deals, and Eco-Labeling of Products and Services. Components of these mechanisms have been tested in various agro-ecological zones in Tanzania and proved to be useful in the process of enhancing sustainable land management at the micro level. Observations therefore suggest that, some incentive market based mechanisms can work to reducing impact of land degradation at the micro level especially when they are related to improved purchasing power of the land users. In order to reduce the dependence of the governments and reduce donor syndrome in enhancing sustainable land management in Tanzania and elsewhere, there is a need of encouraging the use of incentive market based mechanisms that will have contributions to the welfare of the land users as well as contribution to the reduced land degradation.

Operationalizing Zero Net Land Degradation: The next stage in international efforts to combat desertification?

At the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20) in June 2012, governments adopted “The Future We Want” outcome document, which recognized (in paragraph 206) “the need for urgent action to reverse land degradation. In view of this we will strive to achieve a land-degradation neutral world … .” This paragraph sets a goal of maintaining a world where the total amount of degraded land remains constant, and that would secure the currently available productive land for the use of present and future generations.This article examines the challenges of operationalizing this concept of Zero Net Land Degradation (ZNLD) and its global derivative, a land degradation neutral world (LDNW).First, the concept and need for ZNLD is introduced and explained. Then we look at the expectations from ZNLD/LDNW targets within the context of promoting the recognition of land degradation as a global threat and contributing to global food security. Next we elaborate the challenges in making ZNLD operational, including: scoping (determining the spatial scale and the selected domain for which land degradation neutrality is to be achieved); mapping (classifying the lands by their current use and state of their productivity); prescribing (prescribing management practices relevant to each of the land classes); applying the selected land management (for either reducing degradation, restoring productivity, or increasing resilience); and monitoring management and its outcome.We then examine the enabling environment necessary to capture ZNLD opportunities and address the technical challenges facing the operationalization of ZNLD. The article concludes with recommendations for the way forward: first, recognize existing projects suitable for ZNLD testing and establish new pilot projects at the local community or landscape scales; and the second, seek recognition and support for achieving ZNLD at the global scale through the United Nations system.

Effect of tillage and cropping systems on runoff, soil loss and crop yields under semiarid rainfed agriculture in India

Cropping practice (tillage) is an important management tool for tackling water induced erosion hazard, promoting in situ water conservation and improving and stabilising crop yields from rainfed production systems of semiarid and subtropical regions. Four practices including conventional tillage (CT), ridge farming tillage (RFT), no tillage (NT) and stubble mulch farming tillage (SMFT) were evaluated for 11 years (1990–1991 to 2001–2002) under semiarid rainfed conditions in western India on a very deep, sandy loam soil. Green gram11“Also known as Mung bean”. (Vigna radiata)–mustard (Brassica juncea) sequential cropping and pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum)+pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) intercropping systems were tested for the first four years (first phase of the experiment). Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata)–mustard sequential cropping and cowpea+castor (Ricinus communis) intercropping systems were used for the following seven years (second phase of the experiment). Runoff, soil losses, sediment concentrations, crop yields, soil organic carbon, bulk density and water stable aggregates were observed for all the treatment combinations. RFT and SMFT were both effective in reducing runoff and soil loss. RFT, NT and SMFT reduced runoff by 69.4, 16.2 and 59.6% respectively compared with CT. Average soil loss in NT was 37.2% less than CT. Average sediment concentration of runoff during June–July was greater than in August–October for all treatments and average sediment concentrations were greater under CT and RFT. The highest average yield of all crops except green gram was recorded under SMFT. Surface soil organic carbon (SOC), bulk density and water stable macro-aggregates were all significantly greater under NT at the end of the experiment, but reverting to uniform tillage negated this effect. Micro-aggregates built-up under SMFT were relatively more stable than those all under NT. The results of this study demonstrate that in the semi-arid sub-tropical agro-ecosystem of Gujarat (western India) adoption of SMFT can significantly improve and stabilise the crop yields and reverse land degradation process.

Economics of Land Degradation Initiative: Methods and Approach for Global and National Assessments

Healthy land ecosystems are essential to sustainable development, including food security and improved livelihoods. Yet, their key services have usually been taken for granted and their true value underrated, leading to land degradation becoming a critical global problem. This pattern of undervaluation of lands is about to change in view of the rapidly rising land prices, which is the result of increasing shortage of land and high output prices. Despite the urgent need for preventing and reversing land degradation, the problem has yet to be appropriately addressed. Policy actions for sustainable land management are lacking, and a policy framework for action is missing. Such a framework for policy action needs to be supported by evidence-based and action-oriented research. The Economics of Land Degradation (ELD) initiative seeks to develop such a science basis for policy actions to address land degradation. The purpose of this methodological paper is to provide with sound and feasible standards for ELD assessment at global and national levels. Only if some basic standards are identified and adhered to, comparative assessments can be conducted between countries and useful aggregation of findings, based on these case studies, can be achieved. Therefore, using the Total Economic Value (TEV) framework, the paper identifies minimum core standards that need to be adhered to in all country case studies to generate comparable material for international assessment and ELD policy guidance. It also identifies additional and desirable areas of information and analyses that would add value to the country case study material. The proposed framework is also intended as a forward-looking agenda which can guide future research.

The Economics of Land Degradation

Healthy soils are essential for sustaining economies and human livelihoods. In spite of this, the key ecosystem services provided by soils have usually been taken for granted and their true value – beyond market value – is being underrated. This pattern of undervaluation of soils is about to change in view of rapidly raising land prices, which is the result of increased shortage of land and raising output prices that drive implicit prices of land (with access to water) upward. Moreover, the value of soil related ecosystems services is being better understood and increasingly valued.It is estimated that about a quarter of global land area is degraded, affecting about 1.5 billion people in all agro-ecologies around the world. Land degradation has its highest toll on the livelihoods and well-being of the poorest households in the rural areas of developing countries. Vicious circles of poverty and land degradation, as well as transmission effects from rural poverty and food insecurity to national economies, critically hamper their development process.Despite the need for preventing and reversing land degradation, the problem has yet to be appropriately addressed. Policy action for sustainable land use is lacking, and a policy framework for action is missing. Key objectives of this Issue Paper and of a proposed related global assessment of the Economics of Land Degradation (ELD) are: first, to raise awareness about the need for and role of an assessment of the economic, social and environmental costs of land degradation; and second, to propose and illustrate a scientific framework to conduct such an assessment, based on the costs of action versus inaction against land degradation. Preliminary findings suggest that the costs of inaction are much higher than the costs of action.

A synthesis of remote sensing and local knowledge approaches in land degradation assessment in the Bawku East District, Ghana

A greater percentage of Northern Ghana is under threat of land degradation and is negatively impacting on the well-being of the people owing to deforestation, increasing incidence of drought, indiscriminate bush burning and desertification. The problem is becoming severe with serious implications on the livelihoods of the people as the land is the major resource from which they eke their living. Reversing land degradation requires sustainable land use planning which should be based on detailed up-to-date information on landscape attributes. This information can be generated through remote sensing analytical studies. Therefore, an attempt has been made in this study to collect data for planning by employing remote sensing techniques and ground truthing.The analysis included satellite image classification and change detection between Landsat images captured in 1989, 1999 and 2006. The images were classified into the following classes: water bodies, close savannah woodland, open savannah woodland, grassland/unharvested farmland, exposed soil, burnt scars, and settlement. Change detection performed between the 1989 and 1999 and 1989 and 2006 showed that the environment is deteriorating. Land covers such as close savannah woodland, open savannah woodland and exposed soil diminished over the period whereas settlement and water bodies increased. The grassland/unharvested farmland showed high increases because the images were captured at the time that some farms were still crops or crop residue.Urbanization, land clearing for farming, over grazing, firewood fetching and bush burning were identified as some of the underlying forces of vegetal cover degradation. The socio-cultural beliefs and practices of the people also influenced land cover change as sacred groves as well as medicinal plants are preserved. Local knowledge is recognized and used in the area but it is not properly integrated with scientific knowledge for effective planning for sustainable land management. This is due to lack of expertise in remote sensing and geographic information systems (GIS) in the area.

EFFECT OF REDUCED TILLAGE AND MINERAL FERTILIZER APPLICATION ON MAIZE AND SOYBEAN PRODUCTIVITY

SUMMARYReduced tillage is said to be one of the potential ways to reverse land degradation and ultimately increase the productivity of degrading soils of Africa. We hypothesised that crop yield following a modest application of 2 t ha−1 of crop residue in a reduced tillage system is similar to the yield obtained from a conventional tillage system, and that incorporation of legumes in a cropping system leads to greater economic benefits as opposed to a cropping system involving continuous maize. Three cropping systems (continuous maize monocropping, legume/maize intercropping and rotation) under different tillage and residue management systems were tested in sub-humid western Kenya over 10 seasons. While soybean performed equally well in both tillage systems throughout, maize yield was lower in reduced than conventional tillage during the first five seasons but no significant differences were observed after season 6. Likewise, with crop residue application, yields in conventional and reduced tillage systems are comparable after season 6. Nitrogen and phosphorus increased yield by up to 100% compared with control. Gross margins were not significantly different among the cropping systems being only 6 to 39% more in the legume–cereal systems relative to similar treatments in continuous cereal monocropping system. After 10 seasons of reduced tillage production, the economic benefits for our cropping systems are still not attractive for a switch from the conventional to reduced tillage.

Changes in water flows and water productivity upon vegetation regeneration on degraded hillslopes in northern Ethiopia: a water balance modelling exercise

The establishment of exclosures (i.e. areas closed for grazing and agriculture) is a common practice to reverse land degradation through vegetation regeneration in the semiarid highland areas of northern Ethiopia. In order to assess the effect of exclosures on water flows, the water balance components for different vegetation regeneration stages were assessed through field measurements and modelling. Successful model calibration and validation was done based on soil water content measurements conducted during 2 years in 22 experimental plots. In the protected areas, vegetation regeneration leads to an increase in infiltration and transpiration and a more productive use of water for biomass production. In areas where additional lateral water (runon) infiltrates, source–sink systems are created. Here, up to 30% of the annual rainfall percolates through the root-zone towards the groundwater table. Increased biomass production in exclosures leads to possibilities for wood harvesting and cut and carry of grasses for livestock feeding. Together with water conservation and more productive use of water, the latter contributes to increased livestock water productivity. At the landscape scale, the creation of vegetation filters, capturing resources like water and nutrients, reinforces the rehabilitation process and healthy landscape functioning.

Towards an ecological restoration network: reversing land degradation in Latin America

Latin America (including Mexico and Central and South America) hosts a substantial proportion of global biodiversity, but suffers from increasing rates of deforestation, land degradation, and dryland expansion. Low-cost modification of local management practices integrating ecological restoration could play a major role in abating ecosystem degradation and biodiversity loss. A regional ecological restoration network would identify the major challenges, both practical and intellectual, and generate protocols for assisting land managers and stakeholders through shared databases and experience. Such a network would enhance the critical mass of practitioners working under similar, though diverse social, cultural, and ecological contexts. Una proporción sustancial de la biodiversidad mundial se encuentra en América Latina (la cual incluye a México, Centro y Sudamérica); sin embargo, esta región sufre de tasas crecientes de deforestación, degradación del suelo y expansión de las zonas áridas. Algunas prácticas locales de manejo, con modificaciones de bajo costo que integren la restauración ecológica, podrían jugar un papel muy importante en el abatimiento de la degradación de los ecosistemas y en la reducción de la biodiversidad. Una red de restauración ecológica regional identificaría los principales retos, tanto prácticos como intelectuales, y generaría los protocolos para auxiliar a los administradores y los dueños de terreno a través de experiencias y bases de datos compartidas. Esta red incrementaría la masa crítica de investigadores que trabajan en contextos sociales, históricos y ecológicos similares.

Reversing Land Degradation from Wind Erosion in Inner Mongolia: the Choice between Grass and Bush Restoration or Conservation Tillage of Contour Strip Plantings Depends on Hill Slopes and Rainfall

Reversing Land Degradation from Wind Erosion in Inner Mongolia: the Choice between Grass and Bush Restoration or Conservation Tillage of Contour Strip Plantings Depends on Hill Slopes and Rainfall

Implementing the UNCCD: Towards a Recipe for Success

Unfortunately, it seems very likely that the sixth UNCCD Conference of the Parties (COP) to be held in August/September 2003, like the previous ones, will for the most part be focused on issues of process, institutions and budgets. These are all necessary, of course, because they provide the structure for governance and perpetuation of the Convention. But should these be the priority objectives that are pursued? Is the UNCCD really assisting to reverse land degradation?

Land degradation processes in Portugal: farmers' perceptions of the application of European agroforestry programmes

AbstractThis paper examines the effectiveness of European Union (EU) agroforestry programmes in reversing land degradation processes in the Mação region of central Portugal. Since the 1980s, the region has experienced severe forest fires, which have had serious consequences for the local ecosystem in terms of land degradation processes and changes in the hydrological cycle. In an attempt to reverse this situation, agroforestry programmes and aid schemes have been introduced to improve land management practices and increase the forest area and stabilize soil. However, evaluations of the environmental, economic and social impacts of these schemes have been limited. This paper considers the effectiveness of agroforestry programmes from the perspectives of farmers in the area, as revealed by a detailed survey of land users' perceptions of these measures. The paper also reflects on the implications for current and future policy. The results suggest that present assistance regimes may be insufficient to ensure adequate forest management in the future. A new approach to forest management is proposed involving greater cooperation among local farmers, diversification of species in new afforestation and the establishment of demonstration projects. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.