Reversible Heat Research Articles

Prognostic analysis of thermal interface material effects on anisotropic heat transfer characteristics and state of health of a 21700 cylindrical lithium-ion battery module

In this study, a semi-empirical computational heat transfer model has been developed to simulate anisotropic thermal characteristics in nickel-rich rechargeable 21700 lithium-ion battery modules with thermal interface materials. A set of conservation equations were developed and numerically solved using a finite-volume-based computational fluid dynamics technique. Experimental measurements of direct current internal resistance, temperature-dependent open circuit potential, and electrochemical impedance were conducted to obtain thermal and electrical data prior to the development of battery heat generation and performance aging models. Detailed reversible and irreversible heat generation rates in battery modeling could be fully addressed and evaluated from the experimental data for post-extensive numerical analysis. After validating the developed battery models against measured experimental data, further numerical analyses were performed to evaluate the effect of thermal interface materials on the battery module temperatures and the state of health. Numerical results showed that the cooling performance of the battery module was improved by reducing interfacial thermal contact resistances after the thermal interfacing application. Moreover, it was found that the parallel thermal conductivity of the interfacing materials to bottom cooling channels is primarily related to the uniform temperature distribution of the battery module, whereas the vertical thermal conductivity is rather associated with maximum temperature. These features are clearly apparent with increased coolant flow rate and thermal interfacing thickness. Lastly, the state of health of the battery module can be enhanced with improved temperature uniformity and decreased maximum temperature of the module when the thermal interfacing materials are employed.

Analysis of heat generation in lithium-ion battery components and voltage rebound based on electrochemical and thermal coupled model

It is particularly important to analyze the heat generation associated with the electrochemical process for thermal and safety management of ternary NMC lithium-ion batteries. In this paper, we develop an electrochemical-thermal coupled model to analyze the respective heat generation mechanisms of each battery component at both normal temperature and subzero temperature at different discharge rates. Taking 1C discharge rate as an example, at normal temperature the NE (negative electrode) heat generation rate is less than the PE (positive electrode) one. Although the NE polarization heat is higher than the PE one, there exists a large portion of reversible heat generation at PE as against a small portion at NE, leading to a lower level of heat generation at the NE. In addition, the transient heat generation rate of the NE keeps increasing with the discharge process and exceeds the PE one near the end of discharge. However, the NE heat generation rate at subzero temperature is much increased compared with the normal temperature case whereas the PE one changes little with temperature. The total NE heat generation rate at subzero temperature is higher than the PE one in that the NE polarization heat is much higher than the PE counterpart. It is noted that the polarization heat of the NE and PE is much higher than the ohmic heat throughout the temperature range. At the subzero temperature of −15 °C, the battery still functions at low to moderate discharge rates of 1– 1.5C by experiencing a voltage rebound without significant losing in capacity. The reversible heat occurring at NE exhibits heat release in the early stage of the discharge process at subzero temperature instead of heat absorption at normal temperature. In addition, the experimental test was also conducted to validate the present electrochemical and thermal coupled model.

Near-field thermal rectification via an InSb/graphene/3C–SiC-nanowire heterostructure

Thermal rectifiers allow asymmetric heat flux when the temperature bias between two terminals is reversed. Based on the near-field radiative heat transfer, the performance of thermal rectifiers can be significantly enhanced. Here, we propose a near-field thermal rectifier based on the InSb/graphene/3C–SiC-nanowire heterostructure. The rectifier consists of two terminals, one terminal is an InSb slab with a graphene-coated bottom, and the other terminal is a 3C–SiC nanowire array with a graphene cover on its top. By using fluctuational electrodynamics, we calculate the radiation heat flux and the corresponding thermal rectification efficiency (TRE). The results show that the strong asymmetric surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs) and hyperbolic phonon polaritons (HPPs) in the forward and reverse heat transfer scenarios guarantee a robust TRE. Besides, the TRE of the proposed heterostructure can be dynamically controlled and optimized via the chemical potential of graphene, the volumetric filling ratio of the nanowire array, and the terminal temperature. Specifically, the thermal rectification efficiency (1 – min (Qf, Qr)/max (Qf, Qr) with Qf and Qr denoting the forward and reverse heat flux, respectively) can exceed 80% at a wide-ranged terminal gap and reaches a maximum of 92.96%.

ПОКАЗНИКИ ЕНЕРГОЕФЕКТИВНОСТІ ГРОМАДСЬКОЇ БУДІВЛІ

The relevance of paying attention to the energy efficiency of buildings, which will reduce the consumption of fossil fuels and electricity and reduce harmful emissions into the environment, is shown. The energy efficiency indicators of the public building were analyzed, namely the thermal resistance of the enclosing structures, the specific energy demand for heating, cooling and hot water supply, the specific energy consumption of the building for heating and cooling, the specific consumption of primary energy and the specific emissions of greenhouse gases.The effect of increasing the normative thermal resistance of the outer wall of the building on the required thickness of the insulation was evaluated. It is indicated that under the conditions of a large facade glazing ratio and compliance with the regulatory thermal resistance of the fences, the building does not meet the requirements for specific energy consumption for heating, cooling and hot water supply.The influence of the heat source for heating the building on its specific energy consumption, energy efficiency class, specific consumption of primary energy and specific emissions of greenhouse gases was studied. Considered options for using a gas boiler, a condensing gas boiler, electric heaters, a biomass pellet boiler and connection to a centralized heat supply system. The effectiveness of the implementation of reversible heat pump equipment for heating and cooling of buildings is substantiated

Effect of interlayer K ordering on water intercalation behavior in δ-type layered manganese dioxide

Layered manganese dioxide (birnessite) that contains K cations and water molecules in between the MnO2 layers exhibits reversible heat storage properties via a water-intercalation mechanism (0.5 mol H2O per K0.33MnO2). However, a certain amount of an irreversible capacity of water intercalation is observed after the initial thermal cycle, which limits the reversibly available energy density of the material for the subsequent cycles. In this study, we analyzed crystal structures of the K-containing birnessite, K0.33MnO2, before and after heat treatment, by electron diffraction and atomic-resolution scanning transmission electron microscopy, to elucidate the origin of the initial irreversible capacity (0.83 mol per K0.33MnO2). The K-containing birnessite synthesized by thermal decomposition of KMnO4 was found to basically possess a superstructure of tripled periodicity along the in-plane direction due to an ordered arrangement of the interlayer K cations, while the stacking periodicity of the interlayer K cations along the out-of-plane direction was partially lost. The K cations preferentially occupy the 2c site (space group P63/mmc), which is the most stable position as confirmed by ab initio calculations. The K cations occupy every third 2c site in almost all the interlayers after heat treatment, although the K cations in the as-synthesized state are randomly arranged in some of the interlayers because excess water molecules prevent the interlayer K cations from occupying the most stable 2c site. Thus, the ordering of the K cations once occurring without the water molecules during heat treatment hinders the excess water initially included to re-intercalate in the subsequent cycle process.

Research on proper sampling parameters determination approach of digital filters in small steady-state heat flux measurement

Noise fluctuation often occurs in small steady-state heat flux measurement and it significantly disturbs the measurement precision. When using the digital filters denoising the raw heat flux signals on-line, the sampling parameters, i.e. the sampling size and sampling period have an important influence on the filtering effect. In this paper, the aim is to explore an appropriate sampling parameters determination approach. Firstly, a typical small steady-state heat flux measurement apparatus was built with a refrigerator cabinet based on the reverse heating loss method. With the help of error analysis and via particle image velocimetry technique, it is inferred that the noise mainly originates from the error of the acquisition system and the flow field unsteady-state on the given measurement condition. Then, three cases are performed to explore the determination approach of appropriate sampling parameters for six digital filters with the assist of running coefficients of variation of filtering effect assessment metrics. The numerical results indicated that the sampling independent sizes for rolling average, median, moving average, Savitzky-Golay, Gaussian and Kalman filters are 9780, 3210, 3926, 3676, 3179 and 8089, respectively. The start-point has a slight impact on the sampling independent size. The raw heat flux signals with large sampling period span can capture more noise information of the time series signal. Considering the filtering effect and sampling efficiency, the moving average filter with the sampling size of 3926 and the sampling period of 3.308 s is suitable for the steady-state heat flux denoising work of refrigerator cabinet.

Heat transfer performance of the L-shaped flat gravity heat pipe used for zero-carbon heating houses

The L-shaped flat gravity heat pipe (LFGHP) is applied to the building envelope to effectively improve solar heat gain and achieve zero-carbon heating due to its ultrahigh equivalent thermal conductivity (ke) and thermal diode effect. In this paper, the forward and reverse heat transfer models of LFGHP are developed and experimentally verified. An experimental platform is built to experimentally study the thermal start-up time and the key factors on forward heat transfer, including the working fluid and filling ratio, the bending angle, the inclination angle, the length ratio of the condenser to the evaporator, the cooling temperature, and the heat flux. The ke of an LFGHP in practical use during a whole day is obtained. The results show that: (1) The heat transfer model of LFGHP can be regarded as three series thermal resistances in forward heat transfer and three parallel thermal resistances in reverse heat transfer, and the thermal diode effect is experimentally verified, with a rectification ratio over 170. (2) The acetone heat pipe with a volume filling ratio of 10% is of the highest ke and is the optimum combination of working fluid and filling ratio. (3) The ke in forward heat transfer increases with the decrease of bending angle and inclination angle, and increases with the increase of heat flux, cooling temperature, and length ratio of the condenser to the evaporator. (4) The thermal start-up time shortens with the increase of heat flux and inclination angle and can be neglected in applications. This study is helpful for the selection and design of the LFGHP used in solar houses and has guiding significance for the improvement and optimization of the practical applications of zero-carbon heating houses.

Numerical study on thermal characteristics under external short circuit for Li||Bi liquid metal batteries

As one of the most potent battery technology, liquid metal battery (LMB) plays an important role in addressing the requirement of grid energy storage. However, up to now, few attention has been paid to the heat generation characteristics and thermal safety of LMB, including the conventional and abusive conditions. In this paper, a 2D axisymmetric multi-physics field model coupling electrochemistry, heat transfer, and laminar flow is proposed to evaluate the electro-thermal behavior of 200 Ah Li||Bi LMBs under the states of constant current (CC) cycle and external short circuit (ESC). Verified by the experimental data, the maximum fitting errors of the voltage and temperature are 4.61% and 0.42%, respectively. The reversible and irreversible electrochemical heat generation rates are calculated to assess the total heat power (9.14 W during 0.2 C discharge and −5.06 W during 0.2 C charge). The reversible heat rate is found to occupy a large proportion in the total heat generation, while the percentage of irreversible heat is shown to increase with the increasing current rate. Based on the analysis of CC cycle, the model is applied to investigate the battery electro-thermal performance in ESC failure. The results show that the ESC current and surface temperature vary with the short-circuit resistance and initial state of charge (SOC). The lower ESC resistance and initial SOC may lead to a severer temperature rise due to the unique entropic heat behavior. The maximum current and temperature reach 455.8 A and 549.3 °C in 5 min (100% SOC, 0.1 mΩ). This work provides an important opportunity to advance the understanding of heat generation and abuse phenomena induced by ESC in LMB.

Experimental investigation of a ceramic heat regenerator for heat recovery in a decentralized reversible ventilation system

The operational characteristics of decentralized, wall–mounted, ductless, reversible heat recovery ventilation unit (HRV) with a ceramic honeycomb stone for sensible thermal energy storage and recovery were investigated in a full-scale, long-term experiment. Parametric experimental studies were carried out to obtain the operation cycles, supply air temperature, thermal effectiveness and sensible heat recovery under real working conditions of the heating season in Dfb Koepper-Geige climate. An experimental study was carried out to obtain data for determining the characteristics of supply air temperature as a base for further effectiveness and thermal sensible energy calculation. For comprehensive evaluation of the HRV the three specific effectiveness has been established as the instantaneous (from 100 to 63%–67% for the external temperature of −3 and 10 °C respectively), the air supply cycle (80–81%) and the long-term operation (62–63%), as a new approach to operation characteristics in the form of equations easy to implement in HVAC simulation programs and calculation sheets for future building energy simulation, building energy performance calculations, complex and simple engineering calculations, etc. Preserved open and universal form of research procedure and proposed equations, as a directly applicable characteristics, enable effective engineering calculations and analyzes, and allow for determining the operational characteristics of other devices with analogous operating principles.

Heat transfer enhancement of modular thermal energy storage unit for reversible heat pump cooperation

The following article presents experimental comparison research on a hexagonal shelland-tube latent thermal energy storage (TES). Such shape of a shell was deliberately chosen instead of a cylindrical one due to its high modularity and with intent for future applications in automobiles (EV and PHEV) air conditioning systems (HVAC). Two geometries of helical coils, acting as tubes, were studied in this article. One was a simple helical coil with a small pitch. The other one was a helical coil with a larger pitch but enhanced with six longitudinal fins for each corner of the hexagon. Fins were added to study the effects of higher heat transfer area as well as effects of better thermal penetration of the Phase Change Material (PCM). Geometries of coils were matched with intent to occupy the same volume in the storage tank for a better comparison of the results. Results were also compared with previous studies carried out by authors for a copper pipe placed in a cylindrical shell. PCM chosen for this study was RT18HC due to its high value of latent heat and the melting temperature close to 18°C. Melting temperature value is crucial for applications in vehicle thermal control systems.

Reducing industrial hydrogen demand through preheating with very high temperature heat pumps

Decarbonising industry while maintaining economic competitiveness and improving living standards is one of the main challenges of reaching net zero targets, and low-carbon process heating will play a key role in this. In this work we investigate the potential to reduce the energy demands of hydrogen-based industrial heating systems using very high temperature reverse Joule-Brayton cycle heat pumps as preheaters, considering their economics and technical challenges. A thermodynamic process model is used to assess performance at temperatures of 300–500 °C, and cost optimisation is used to conduct cost-benefit analysis of preheating green hydrogen using heat pumps. It is found that over this temperature range, heat pump coefficient of performance lies in the range 1.4–1.7, with the turbine meeting 30–40% of the compressor load. At the electricity prices currently paid by heavy industry in Western Europe, levelised cost of heat from these heat pumps would be less than 4.5p/kWh. Using 500 °C heat pumps as preheaters in hydrogen heating systems could reduce hydrogen demands by over 20% and provide savings on the cost of green hydrogen of at least 8% out to 2050. With process heat accounting for three-quarters of industrial energy use and half of this being at temperatures above 400 °C, these savings are significant and suggest that very high temperature heat pumps could make an important contribution to industrial decarbonisation.

Energy and Environmental Performance Comparison of Heat Pump Systems Working with Alternative Refrigerants

The European Parliament has imposed to reduce by 2030 whole HFC emissions by at least two-thirds with respect to 2014 levels. With the aim of contributing to determine the energy and environmental advantages of refrigerants alternative to R-410A, this paper reports the results of a numerical study focused on an HVAC system coupled to a residential building and based on a reversible electric heat pump. In particular, two heat pump typologies are considered: an air-source and a ground-source heat pump, both operating with the two refrigerants R-410A and R-454B. The environmental performance of the studied system is assessed by means of the TEWI (total equivalent warming impact) index. The adoption of R-454B involves a slight decrease (2–3%) in the overall annual energy performance of the system with respect to the use of R-410A. On the other hand, the working fluid R-454B guarantees a marked decrease in the TEWI indicator. Indeed, considering the current Italian emission factor of electricity taken from the grid, the total emissions over the entire heat pump operating life drop by about 25% and can decrease by up to 89% in perspective, following the current reduction trend of the emission factor.

Performance analysis on the liquid cooling plate with the new Tesla valve capillary channel based on the fluid solid coupling simulation

Liquid cold plates are extensively utilized for heat dissipation in new energy vehicle fuel cell stacks. However, practical applications have revealed issues such as uneven heating and significant pressure loss in the heat dissipation channel. To address these concerns, this study introduces the design of a forward Tesla valve capillary heat dissipation channel and a reverse Tesla valve capillary heat dissipation channel, aimed at mitigating the eddy current issue at bends inside the capillary bionic flow channel. Under the same working conditions, the performance indicators such as the pressure distribution of the original, forward and reverse heat dissipation channel of liquid cold plates were obtained respectively. The results show that the forward cooling channel significantly reduced the pressure loss of the liquid cooling plate whilst the reverse channel effectively improved the heat transfer. Aiming at the problem of excessive pressure difference encountered in the reverse Tesla valve capillary channel, different numbers of valves and branches were designed on the reverse Tesla valve capillary cooling channel. It was found that a higher cooling capacity can be obtained with less pumping power when the aspect ratio between the number of valves and the number of branches of the reverse Tesla valve capillary liquid cooling plate was controlled in the range from 1.13 to 1.6.

Reversible heat effects of lithium metal- and porous lithium iron phosphate electrodes

We report Peltier heats and reaction entropy of cells with lithium metal- and near fully lithiated lithium iron phosphate (LFP) electrodes. The Peltier heats were measured through the Seebeck coefficient of thermogalvanic cells. The value obtained for the Peltier heat of Li-metal, -32 ± 3 kJ/mol at 298 K, supports previously reported values. When close to being fully lithiated, LFP goes through a phase transition from a two-phase mixture to a solid solution. The value of Peltier heats obtained for LFP vary from -15 ± 1 to -72 ± 9 kJ/mol. The variation is explained by large entropy changes of lithium iron phosphate, near the phase transition. The cell entropy difference of lithium iron phosphate against lithium metal varied from -64 ± 3 to +50 ± 20 J/K mol. The negative Peltier heats means that the electrodes generates heat when acting as an anode, which leads to a temperature rise in the electrode compartment, and absorbs heat when acting as a cathode. The local reversible heat effect is equal to or larger in magnitude than the net reversible heat effect. The time-dependence of the Seebeck coefficient, the Soret effect, was found to differ between the cells with planar Li-metal electrodes to porous LFP.

Opportunities and economic assessment for a third-party delivering electricity, heat and cold to residential buildings

In the present context of energy transition towards a carbon neutral society, residential sector plays an important role to combat climate change since it represents about 40% of the global final energy consumption and 30% of direct CO2 emissions in the European Union. Polygeneration systems, facilitating the integration of renewable energies, are a feasible alternative enabling efficient use of natural resources with low environmental impact. This work analyzes the economic viability, in terms of net present value (NPV), and environmental benefit (CO2eq emissions) of an energy supplier company playing the role on an aggregator for both demand and supply. As an owner of a polygeneration system, optimally designed through a MILP approach, it delivers various energy services (electricity, space heating, domestic hot water and cold) to several customers (50 dwellings). The analysis is performed, considering three different business models, in two different locations, Zaragoza (Spain) and Marseille (France), with different energy demands, energy mixes and energy regulations. The optimal configuration obtained, consisting of cogeneration module, PV, reversible heat pump, boiler and thermal energy storage has shown to be very resilient and cost-effective in the scenarios analyzed. Results indicate that the proposed scheme represents an added value for both the supplier company (aggregator), with a positive NPV, and the final customers (owing savings greater than 30%), with significant reduction of CO2eq emissions.

Integrated Thermodynamic and Control Modeling of an Air-to-Water Heat Pump for Estimating Energy-Saving Potential and Flexibility in the Building Sector

Reversible heat pumps are increasingly adopted for meeting the demand for space heating and cooling in buildings. These technologies will play a key role not only in the decarbonization of space air conditioning but also in the development of 100% renewable energy systems. However, to assess the achievable benefits through the adoption of these technologies in novel applications, reliable models are needed, capable of simulating both their steady-state operation and dynamic response at different conditions in terms of heating loads, outdoor temperatures, and so on. The operation of heat pumps is often investigated by highly simplified models, using performance data drawn from catalogs and paying scarce attention to the critical influence of controllers. In this respect, this paper proposed an integrated thermodynamic and control modeling for a reversible air-to-water heat pump. The study considered a heat pump alternatively equipped with variable-speed compressors and constant-speed compressors with sequential control. The developed modeling was then used to investigate the operation of an air-to-water heat pump serving an office building in Italy. Results show that the model provided insights into the transient operation of variable-speed heat pumps (e.g., the settling time). Regarding constant-speed heat pumps, the model provided hints of interest to the control engineer to prevent, in the examined case study, the risk of quick compressors cycling on low-load heating days or when low-temperature heating devices are supplied. Finally, using a control strategy based on a heating curve for the variable-speed heat pump, results show the potential for a sensible increase in the average coefficient of performance, from 17% up to 50%.

Thermal characteristics of pouch lithium–ion battery capacitors based on activated carbon and LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2

Lithium–ion battery capacitors (LIBCs) are internal hybrid energy storage devices that incorporate structural characteristics of lithium–ion batteries (LIBs) and lithium–ion capacitors (LICs) for extensive applications in electric vehicles and energy storage systems. But, most of the existing researches have concentrated on the electrochemical performance of LIBC cells, with less research on thermal behaviors of them. Therefore, this work systematically investigates the thermal characteristics of LIBC cells during discharge from 1C to 160C. The discharge capacity is reduced along with an increase in discharge rate, with the highest temperature occurring at 80C discharge rate, where it reaches 51.74 °C. The share of irreversible heat generation, reversible heat generation and other heat generation with respect to total heat generation are quantified. With the discharge rate increasing to 160C, the share of irreversible heat generation is nearly 89.2 % of the total heat generation. Meanwhile, it obtains 263.21 W heat generation rate. Moreover, the LIBC cell's internal resistance is obtained by intermittent current method and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) method, while the heat generation is calculated to estimate cell's temperature rise. The intermittent current method makes possible the selection of various timescales for calculating the polarization internal resistance with more accurate calculation of the temperature rise.

On the Relations between Lithium-Ion Battery Reaction Entropy, Surface Temperatures and Degradation

Understanding and mitigating the degradation of batteries is important for financial as well as environmental reasons. Many studies look at cell degradation in terms of capacity losses and the mechanisms causing them. However, in this study, we take a closer look at how degradation affects heat sources in batteries, thereby requiring dynamic cooling strategies for battery systems throughout the battery life. In this work, we have studied and compared reversible (entropy-related) and non-reversible heat sources in a commercial LCO-graphite lithium-ion battery (LIB) alongside measuring the surface temperature as a function of the State of Health (SoH). In addition, we studied the effect of different thermal management strategies on both degradation and cooling efficiency. We found that entropic heating plays a major role in overall heat generation. This causes large variations in heat generation and battery temperature over both State of Charge (SoC) and charge versus discharge. The maximum battery temperature increases when the cell degrades as irreversible heat generation increases. Temperature variations over the cell thickness are substantial and increase drastically when the cell degrades. In addition, significant increases in thickness were observed as a result of cell degradation. Furthermore, cycling at elevated temperatures resulted in a larger thickness increase with significant gas production.

Direct gas phase synthesis of high-purity black arsenic phosphorus with non-metallic mineralizer

2D black arsenic phosphorus (b-AsP) is a promising candidate for infrared photodetectors. However, directly synthesizing high-purity b-AsP crystals under the existing system is an intractable task. Herein, we report a novel system for synthesizing high-purity b-AsP crystals using non-metallic mineralizer. A small amount of I2 was chosen as the sole additive for the synthesis of b-AsP to avoid metal by-products, and impurities were removed through the reverse heating program after the reaction. Through optimization of process conditions, the efficient conversion rate of b-AsP was> 99%, and the purity of b-AsP crystal was as high as> 99.9% with favorable crystal form, diameter of ∼5 mm, and typical polycrystalline characteristics. The entire synthesis process took only 15 h. This facile and green route for b-AsP crystals synthesis might be expected to replace the existing b-AsP synthesis system and provide theoretical guidance for breakthroughs in the synthesis reaction mechanism of b-AsP materials.

Algorithm-driven optimization of lithium-ion battery thermal modeling

Detailed modeling of battery thermal behaviour has high computational demand due to the presence of multi-scale and multi-physics phenomena. For battery module/pack level simulation, a simple and accurate battery heat generation estimation is urgently required. This paper investigates the optimization of thermal numerical modeling for cylindrical 21,700 lithium-ion batteries with a nominal capacity of 5 Ah. A 3-dimensional battery model was built in the Multiphysics simulation software, COMSOL. The heat source of the model adopts a commonly used heat generation model incorporating irreversible and reversible heat. Correction factors, as a function of the state of charge, were introduced to the calculation of irreversible heat item. The Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) algorithm, written in MATLAB, was coupled with the COMSOL numerical model to minimize the prediction error by varying correction factors. Battery surface temperature data under the continuous discharge tests (0.5C–3.5C) and dynamic loads were experimentally obtained and used to validate the model. The simulation results of the unoptimized model showed a discrepancy of up to 5 °C with the experimental data. After optimization, the prediction error was reduced to less than 0.5 °C on average. The optimized model was applied to predict the thermal behaviour of a battery module (16 aged cells) using oil-based immersion cooling. The pristine battery module with coolant flow velocities of 0.01 m/s was chosen as the baseline. The results indicate that the aged battery modules with internal resistance of 50 mΩ and 75 mΩ require coolant flow velocities of 0.05 m/s and 0.12 m/s, respectively, to achieve the baseline temperature. The study highlights a high-precision and low-computational cost approach for heat generation calculation of lithium-ion batteries is provided, which contributes to the development of battery thermal management systems.