Agricultural Returns Research Articles

The consequences of disposing wastewater in an endorheic wetland in southwest Iran.

Wetlands are important ecosystems both at regional and global scales. They are home to a diverse group of flora and fauna, and provide water for drinking, irrigation, and recreational purposes. Miangaran endorheic wetland in SW Iran serves as the discharge point of the municipal wastewater of a nearby city; it receives agricultural return flows as well. To identify the consequences of the wastewater input, 29 water samples from the wetland's body and inlet streams were analyzed for physico-chemical parameters. The average EC of the wetland was 405 μS/cm; calcium, magnesium, and bicarbonate were the dominant ions. The average pH was high, about 8.6, due to carbonate dissolution in the drainage area which was exacerbated by photosynthesis process inside the wetland. The concentration of phosphate was over the eutrophication limit of 0.1 mg/L. Nitrate contents varied from 5.7 to 12.3 mg/L. Trophic state index based on total nitrogen was about 63, falling within the eutrophic group. Heavy metal concentrations were generally higher than WHO drinking limits. Highest values of EC, nutrients, and metals were observed in the south and northwest, clearly signifying the role of wastewater input as the main source of contamination, which has resulted in the eutrophication of the wetland.

River water quality management considering agricultural return flows: application of a nonlinear two-stage stochastic fuzzy programming.

In this paper, a new fuzzy methodology is developed to optimize water and waste load allocation (WWLA) in rivers under uncertainty. An interactive two-stage stochastic fuzzy programming (ITSFP) method is utilized to handle parameter uncertainties, which are expressed as fuzzy boundary intervals. An iterative linear programming (ILP) is also used for solving the nonlinear optimization model. To accurately consider the impacts of the water and waste load allocation strategies on the river water quality, a calibrated QUAL2Kw model is linked with the WWLA optimization model. The soil, water, atmosphere, and plant (SWAP) simulation model is utilized to determine the quantity and quality of each agricultural return flow. To control pollution loads of agricultural networks, it is assumed that a part of each agricultural return flow can be diverted to an evaporation pond and also another part of it can be stored in a detention pond. In detention ponds, contaminated water is exposed to solar radiation for disinfecting pathogens. Results of applying the proposed methodology to the Dez River system in the southwestern region of Iran illustrate its effectiveness and applicability for water and waste load allocation in rivers. In the planning phase, this methodology can be used for estimating the capacities of return flow diversion system and evaporation and detention ponds.

Conservation Payments under Uncertainty

The decision of whether to retain forest or convert to another land use is affected by uncertainty over future land use returns. This paper examines the design of conservation payments to landowners under uncertainty. Payments are either indexed to the returns from deforestation (agriculture), or to a market value associated with forest nonuse benefits. Payment size depends on the degree of correlation between payments and agricultural returns, and their relative volatility. Market-based payments for reducing emissions from deforestation and degradation (REDD) are simulated for Brazilian soybean growers. Payments indexed to carbon prices are larger than those indexed to international soybean prices. <i>(JEL Q23, Q24)</i>

The Rural Tax Problem in Modern Japan

This paper discusses taxation in interwar Japan from the standpoint of rural–urban inequality, in order to assess whether fiscal extraction had a significantly negative impact on the economy of farmers. The first part reviews macroeconomic estimates on the distribution of the tax burden by either productive sector or territory, pointing to the limits of these approaches. The paper then turns to the analysis of sample surveys conducted in the 1910s–1930s, which provide information on both the horizontal and the vertical structure of the burden. Data show that taxes relevant to farmers were relatively inelastic with income and drained a large share of household surplus until the early 1930s. This problem, however, was primarily the consequence of low returns in agriculture and lost importance in the latter half of the decade, when economic recovery enhanced the effectiveness of fiscal reform.

Information Communication Technology Promoting Retail Marketing in Agriculture Sector in India as a Study

Abstract Now this era of Agriculture is treated as ICT mediated Market Led Agriculture Extension era. So in this Information revolution age we can’t able to survive without Information. As per R.T.I. act 2005 every person deserves his/her right for Information. So by giving respect to Information we should create a Revolution on Information by the enchanting mantra “Soochana se Samadhan”. India is second largest producer of commodities such as fruits and vegetables. One of the key issues, which require research, is the method by which we can reduce the post harvest loss, which is quite substantial at present. This would need design of cost effective, efficient, environment friendly storage system. Also, there is need for value addition to agricultural produce to maximize the agriculture return. This paper attempts to highlight the importance of ICT in improving marketing activities of retail business in agricultural areas in Indian economy. This paper also discusses vast potential of implementing the same in Indian agricultural business activities with some success stories, models for justification of the importance of ICT in Agriculture Retail Marketing.

Linking the Price of Agricultural Land to Use Values and Amenities

The recent appreciation in agricultural land values across the United States has raised a number of important questions for farmers, farmland owners, lenders, and policy makers. While traditional economic theory suggests that farmland values are determined by the discounted stream of expected returns, previous research has shown that agricultural land values are actually driven by a complex set of factors. This study leverages the unique characteristics of a national land‐based USDA survey on farmland values and cash rents to estimate broad, national‐level determinants of the market value of cropland and pastureland. Our results support past research findings that indicate farmland values are only partially explained by agricultural returns. We find that multiple nonagricultural attributes of farmland also contribute to the market value.

Identifying the effects of human pressure on groundwater quality to support water management strategies in coastal regions: A multi-tracer and statistical approach (Bou-Areg region, Morocco)

Groundwater pollution from anthropogenic sources is a serious concern affecting several coastal aquifers worldwide. Increasing groundwater exploitation, coupled with point and non-point pollution sources, are the main anthropogenic impacts on coastal environments and are responsible for severe health and food security issues. Adequate management strategies to protect groundwater from contamination and overexploitation are of paramount importance, especially in arid prone regions, where coastal aquifers often represent the main freshwater resource to sustain human needs.The Bou-Areg Aquifer (Morocco) is a perfect example of a coastal aquifer constantly exposed to all the negative externalities associated with groundwater use for agricultural purposes, which lead to a general increase in aquifer salinization. In this study data on 61 water samples, collected in June and November 2010, were used to: (i) track groundwater composition changes related to the use of irrigation water from different sources, (ii) highlight seasonal variations to assess aquifer vulnerability, and (iii) present a reproducible example of multi-tracer approach for groundwater management in rural coastal areas.Hydrogeochemical results show that Bou-Areg groundwater is characterized by – high salinity, associated with a remarkable increase in bicarbonate content in the crop growing season, due to more intense biological activity in irrigated soils. The coupled multi-tracer and statistical analysis confirms the strong dependency on irrigation activities as well as a clear identification of the processes governing the aquifer’s hydrochemistry in the different seasons. Water Rock Interaction (WRI) dominates the composition of most of groundwater samples in the Low Irrigation season (L-IR) and Agricultural Return Flow (ARF) mainly affects groundwater salinization in the High Irrigation season (H-IR) in the same areas naturally affected by WRI. In the central part of the plain River Recharge (RR) from the Selouane River is responsible for the high groundwater salinity whilst Mixing Processes (MIX) occur in absence of irrigation activities.

Land and water management planning for increasing farm income in irrigated dry areas

The global population is continuously increasing and good quality land and water resources are simultaneously declining. This condition emphasizes the need of optimal allocation of these resources to fulfill the rising food requirements. This study presents the development and application of two management models for the seasonal optimal allocation of resources to maximize the net annual return of a canal command area of India. The models results show a reduction in rice and mustard crop areas against an increase in wheat, millet, cotton, and sugarcane crops. Under the optimal land and water allocation, the groundwater utilization increased, which in turn mitigated the waterlogging problems of the command area. The net annual return from the command area has increased by about 22%. The different optimal resource allocation strategies show an increase in net annual return with the increase in ranges of deviation from the existing conditions. The developed models can be used as a reliable decision aid for taking the farm and regional level decisions of optimal resources allocation and are able to solve the waterlogging problems of irrigated agriculture. The management models presented here are simple and can be used in any part of the world for maximizing the net agricultural return by mitigating the waterlogging problems in irrigated agriculture. However, under different hydro-geologic conditions, the constraints of the model may differ depending on the groundwater quality/quantity conditions and surface water/groundwater availability.

Analyzing Economic Tradeoffs of Water Use in the Nam Ngum River Basin, Lao PDR

This paper develops a hydroeconomic optimization modeling framework to assess the economic consequences and potential trade-offs of various infrastructure development and policy pathways in the Nam Ngum Basin (Lao PDR). We considered whether large shifts in water resource demands in a relatively water abundant basin could induce meaningful economic tradeoffs among water uses, including hydropower generation, irrigation expansion, flood control, and transboundary water transfer objectives. We constructed a series of sensitivity scenarios under dry, average, and wet hydrologic conditions with varying levels dam development, irrigated agricultural expansion, agricultural returns, flood control storage restrictions, and water diversions to northeast Thailand. We also considered how flows into the Mekong would be affected by these collective developments. In general, results indicate that tradeoffs between hydropower production, irrigation, and flood control are modest.

Water and waste load allocation in rivers with emphasis on agricultural return flows: application of fractional factorial analysis.

In this paper, a new methodology is developed to handle parameter and input uncertainties in water and waste load allocation (WWLA) in rivers by using factorial interval optimization and the Soil, Water, Atmosphere, and Plant (SWAP) simulation model. A fractional factorial analysis is utilized to provide detailed effects of uncertain parameters and their interaction on the optimization model outputs. The number of required optimizations in a fractional factorial analysis can be much less than a complete sensitivity analysis. The most important uncertain inputs and parameters can be also selected using a fractional factorial analysis. The uncertainty of the selected inputs and parameters should be incorporated real time water and waste load allocation. The proposed methodology utilizes the SWAP simulation model to estimate the quantity and quality of each agricultural return flow based on the allocated water quantity and quality. In order to control the pollution loads of agricultural dischargers, it is assumed that a part of their return flows can be diverted to evaporation ponds. Results of applying the methodology to the Dez River system in the southwestern part of Iran show its effectiveness and applicability for simultaneous water and waste load allocation in rivers. It is shown that in our case study, the number of required optimizations in the fractional factorial analysis can be reduced from 64 to 16. Analysis of the interactive effects of uncertainties indicates that in a low flow condition, the upstream water quality would have a significant effect on the total benefit of the system.

Phosphorus Removal in a Surface-Flow Constructed Wetland Treating Agricultural Runoff

Agricultural runoff is a leading source of phosphorus (P) pollution to lakes and streams. The objective of this study was to evaluate P removal dynamics in a constructed treatment wetland (CTW) treating agricultural irrigation return flows. The CTW included a sedimentation basin (SB) followed by two surface-flow wetlands in parallel. Typical retention times and total P (TP) loading were 1.4 d and 50 to 110 g m yr P, respectively, for the SB and 5 to 6 d and 4 to 10 g m yr P, respectively, for wetlands. On the basis of this multiyear study, concentration removal efficiency in the SB averaged 21% for TP and 32% for reactive phosphorus (RP). Concentration removal efficiency in wetlands averaged 37 and 43% for TP and 22 and 33% for RP. Areal first-order removal rates for TP averaged 22 and 31 m yr in wetlands. Total P removal in wetlands exhibited a strong seasonal pattern, with minimum removal in the summer when high temperatures likely enhanced P release from decaying plant biomass. The performance of the CTW was stochastic, with removal unpredictably poorer in some years in part as a result of muskrat bioturbation and plant harvesting. In years before muskrat impacts, concentration removal efficiencies in wetlands were 50% for TP and 65% for RP.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS IN THE ACCELERATED MAHAWELI PROJECT

The Mahawcli Development Project is the largest single development programmeundertaken by the Govcmmcnt of Sri Lanka. The Accelerated Programme which wascompleted in :') years envisaged the construction of 4 major reservoirs with hydro-electricityplants. developed about I7:')J60 ha of lands in the downstream areas with irrigationfacilities and established new sculcmcnts of about 74253 families. New and improvedcultivation resulted in the annual production of more than 600.000 tons of rice. Thereservoirs increased the hydroelectric gcnerating capacity hy about 400 megawatts.Among the impacts of the Upper Mahawcli Catchment which includes watersheds andxubwatcrshcds of Kotmalc Oyn. Maha Oya, Urna Oya, Beli-hul Oya is vital as the principlesource of water for hydropower and irrigation projects. Among the threats to theenvironment. the premature silting up of a number of reservoirs especially Polgolla.Raruambe etc. can be noted. Deforestation for chcna cultivation in the steep slopes coupledwith the high water table prevalent in the area results in carthslips and landslides.Deforestation has also caused significant reduction in wildlife habitats in both upstreamand downstream areas. A large number of animals and plants including endangered,threatened and endemic species had been reduced. Due to the use of high quantities ofagrochemicals the agricultural return waters has caused eutrophication in reservoirs. tanksand other w.ucrhodics impairing the effective functioning of these entities and affecting thelife Iorms in them.Among the significant concerns in the downstream areas. rise in the watcrtable thusnecessitating drainage. increased salinity in some areas, contamination of natural waterways due to high usage of agrochcmicals in agricultural practices. increased encounterswith pocketed wild animals causing death and damages to property can be cited.Among the social concerns or the settlements, necessity of high inputs thus reducing thcnet income of the Iarrners. inability to manage holdings with family labour. inadequatesupplies of irrigation water. inadequate service facilities (transportation, schooling. hcalthctc.), rcstrictcd/un employment or the second generation settlers. increased incidence orwater horne and vector horne diseases. teenage suicides can be mentioned.Mitigatory measures which have already been taken by Mahaweli Authority to addressthese conccrnx have been stated along with some recommendations fort the future toachieve the objectives 01" the Mahawcli Programme on a environmentally sustainablemanner.

Restoration potential of the aquatic ecosystems of the Colorado River Delta, Mexico: Introduction to special issue on “Wetlands of the Colorado River Delta”

The delta of the Colorado River in Mexico supports about a million hectares of riparian, marsh and estuarine habitats of international importance. Some of these habitats depend on flows of fresh and brackish water from the U.S. and Mexico. Up to now, these flows were the incidental result of water management actions taken to provide water for agriculture and municipal use, protect against flooding, and dispose of saline agricultural return flows. This paper briefly describes the wetlands and documents recent bi-national efforts to provide environmental flows to the delta, codified in Minutes 306, 316 and 319 of the water treaty between the U.S. and Mexico for the utilization of Colorado River water. Providing water for environmental uses in this watershed will be a daunting task given the many competing uses for water and expected diminished flows due to climate change. The paper serves as an introduction to a special issue of Ecological Engineering, Wetlands of the Colorado River Delta, which contributes 17 new research articles to the science based on these diverse aquatic habitats. We hope these studies will be useful to those developing management strategies to preserve and enhance these habitats for the future.

Water budget for agricultural and aquatic ecosystems in the delta of the Colorado River, Mexico: Implications for obtaining water for the environment

In arid lands, wetland loss is the result not only of the scarcity of water itself, but also of the management of water to maximize off-stream uses. In the Colorado River delta, Mexico, no in-stream flows are allocated for aqutic ecocystems, yet agricultural return flows and canal operational releases support 36,377ha of valuable wetland and riparian habitat. We evaluated the relationships between water use in the Mexicali Irrigation District (DR014) and the water supply for the Colorado River delta wetlands. Mexicali farmers applied on average 1024mmyr−1 to fields in 2008, less than half of what is applied to irrigated fields in a typical irrigation district in the U.S. portion of the river. Farm-level agricultural efficiency is high, as 90% of water applied to fields can be accounted for in evapotranspiration (ET), as estimated by a remote sensing technique and by a district water budget approach. By contrast, in a comparison U.S. irrigation district, ET accounts for only 60% of applied water and the rest emerges as irrigation return flows. Despite the apparent high on-farm irrigation efficiency in DR014, sufficient water is discharged to support valuable ecosystems. Seepage losses from canals are higher than in the comparison district in the U.S., and this water contributes to formation of a high, non-saline aquifer that supported riparian trees along the river. On the other hand, surface drainage water supports brackish wetland habitats south of the irrigation district. The goal of obtaining water for environmental uses by increasing agricultural efficiency in the irrigation districts would not by itself be an effective strategy for the delta aquatic habitats as the delta wetlands and riparian areas are currently dependent on canal seepage, return flows and waste spills from both the U.S. and Mexico.

What's the ticker symbol for farmland?

PurposeRelatively high recent returns to farmland investments have led to substantially elevated interest in farmland investments. Absent, however, is a well‐functioning equity market in farmland real estate, or well‐developed indexes of farmland returns that might contribute to the development of tradable shares tied to farmland returns, or to methods to hedge the value of owned agricultural assets. The purpose of this study is to empirically present relevant measures related to farmland returns and other financial assets to provide a broad context for evaluation of farmland investments in a portfolio context. Issues related to the development of a farmland fund and index construction are discussed along with major risk and transactional factors that are somewhat unique to the asset class.Design/methodology/approachReturns data from a broad set of financial categories and broad set of agricultural returns measures are developed and presented in multiple frameworks to convey temporal persistence, relatedness, and portfolio considerations related to farmland. Issues related to the construction of claims based on agricultural assets are discussed.FindingsAgricultural real estate investments have performed well compared to most other financial assets on most traditional measures of risk adjusted performance. However, the difficulties in direct investment remain and the need to develop securitized conduit exposures to farmland returns is identified.Originality/valueThe study presents a unique set of farmland returns measures and examines the stability of the statistics used to describe these through time. Novel characterizations of the data compared to traditional assets helps investors and asset owners accurately understand the exposure to farmland returns.

Performance analysis of on-farm irrigation tanks on agricultural drainage water reuse and treatment

Water reuse and pollutant removal efficiency analysis of the on-farm irrigation tanks (OFTs) was carried out in rice paddy field region of Zhanghe Irrigation District, Southern China through field experiments during the rice growing season of 2009–2011. Water flow measurements indicate that 20.6–68.9% of drainage water captured by OFTs was reused for supplemental irrigation. Rainfall was the most important factor that determines the water reuse efficiency (WRR) of OFTs, since higher rainfall resulted in higher surplus irrigation water draining out of OFTs without reuse, and thus decreased WRR. Fully using the storage capacity for storing return flow, and releasing totally for supplemental irrigation also enhanced WRR of OFTs. Water quality analysis shows that OFTs removed 47.2% of total phosphorous (TP) and 60.8% of total nitrogen (TN) of inflow and have a great effect on increasing sedimentation for return flow as the mean of removal efficiency of pollutant load (REL) for suspended solids (SS) amounted to 68.4%. For water treatment effectiveness of OFTs, high hydraulic retention time (HRT) is most beneficial to increase REL of TN whereas REL of TP is not sensitive to HRT. These results confirm that OFTs can effectively increase agricultural return flow reuse and remove pollutants. As the cascade OFTs irrigation system recycle return flow for several times, the irrigation water demand from outside of region was reduced significantly for rice production. Coupling with the effect of cyclic irrigation on the nutrients recycling by paddy fields, OFTs irrigation system also considerably mitigate the N and P off-site emission. Therefore, it is advisable to integrate the role of OFTs on water reuse and treatment for water saving irrigation and ecological management of paddy fields landscape.

Processes affecting groundwater quality in arid zones: The case of the Bou-Areg coastal aquifer (North Morocco)

The coastal aquifer of Bou-Areg (Morocco) has been studied to identify the main processes causing groundwater salinization, using a multi tracer (general chemistry and isotopes – δ2H, δ18O, δ13C, δ15NNO3, δ18ONO3) geochemical approach. Groundwater is characterized by the widespread occurrence of brackish waters (TDS<500mgL−1) with high cation contents, which are balanced by elevated dissolved NO3- (reaching a maximum of 208mgL−1) and Cl−. Lagoon samples represent a mixture of fresh water and sea water, showing a Na/Cl ratio in agreement with that of sea water and an excess of Ca. The high Ca values represent the main peculiarity of the groundwater–lagoon water system. Two types of groundwater could be identified: (i) freshwater, separated from the whole system and located at the limit of the irrigated area, characterized by low TDS, depleted isotopic composition and relatively high quality; and (ii) water mainly recharged by mountain runoff, interacting with local recharge and acquiring salinity from different sources, thus creating a complex system of dilute waters. Hydrochemical results confirm that the high salinity of the aquifer is caused by the coexistence of dissolution of evaporate rocks and carbonates from Miocene strata, water–rock interaction, and human impacts due to agricultural return flows. The latter represents the main contribution to groundwater salinization, especially in the central part of the aquifer, as well as one of the main causes of the general increase in NO3- concentrations. Only locally, in the southern part of the aquifer, close to the city of Kariat Arkmane, the high salinization observed may be attributed to the presence of lagoon water intrusion. The isotopic composition of dissolved NO3- indicates manure and septic effluents, especially in urban areas and in the central part of the plain, and synthetic fertilizers in the agricultural zone as the main drivers for human induced pollution. The study shows that agricultural return flow has significantly modified the chemistry of the system and it is a prime example of the human-induced changes over coastal environments. Saline water intrusion from the lagoon in the shallow aquifer is negligible, while discharge of polluted groundwater into the lagoon has been found to partially alter its quality.

Landscape diversity and the resilience of agricultural returns: a portfolio analysis of land-use patterns and economic returns from lowland agriculture

BackgroundConventional agriculture is increasingly based on highly specialized, highly productive farms. It has been suggested that 1) this specialization leads to farms that lack resilience to changing market and environmental conditions; and 2) that by decreasing agricultural diversity, the resilience of the farming system also decreases.MethodsWe used agricultural gross margin (GM) forecasts from 1966 to 2010 and remote sensing data from agricultural landscapes in the lowland UK, in conjunction with modern portfolio theory, to test the hypothesis that decreasing land-use diversity results in landscapes that provide higher, but more volatile, economic returns. We considered the role of spatial scale on the expected levels of volatility and resilience of agricultural returns.ResultsWe found that: 1) there was a strong linear trade-off between expected GMs and the expected volatility of those GMs in real lowland agricultural landscapes in the UK; 2) land-use diversification was negatively correlated with expected GMs from agriculture, and positively correlated with decreasing expected volatility in GMs; 3) the resilience of agricultural returns was positively correlated with the diversity of agricultural land use, and the resilience of agricultural returns rose quickly with increased land-holding size at small spatial extents, but this effect diminished after landholdings reached 12,000 hectares.ConclusionsLand-use diversity may have an important role in ensuring resilient agricultural returns in the face of uncertain market and environmental conditions, and land-holding size plays a pivotal role in determining the relationships between resilience and returns at a landscape scale. Creating finer-grained land-use patterns based on pre-existing local land uses may increase the resilience of individual farms, while maintaining aggregate yield across landscapes.

Water quantity and quality challenges from Elephant Butte to Amistad

Management of the Rio Grande between Elephant Butte and Amistad Reservoirs involves a number of distinct water quantity and quality challenges. These challenges arise from both “natural” stressors, such as climate variability and geologic sources of salinization, and “human” stressors, such as bacterial and nutrient contamination from urban storm water, agricultural return flows, and wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), altered hydrology, and increasing/changing water demands. The discussion does not argue for a single approach to surface water “sustainability” as these decisions are properly made by elected officials and decisions makers. Rather it provides an overview of the surface water system contrasting the pre‐development system with the present day to help inform how the stressors mentioned above impact this resource. Current efforts to address these issues are also discussed.

Development and application of an optimization model for the maximization of net agricultural return

Poor quality groundwater can be used conjunctively with good quality canal water to fulfil crop water demand and maximize net annual returns particularly, in the arid and semi-arid regions where good quality soil and water resources are limited. A linear programming model was developed for the optimal land and water resources allocation in order to maximize net annual returns from an irrigated area located in Haryana State of India. Economic and hydrologic factors used in the model were yield, price, and cost of production of nine crops; unit costs of canal water and groundwater; quality of the mixed canal water and groundwater; and net irrigation requirement of crops. The spatial variations in land and water resources were considered through a network of grids. The water production functions were developed and incorporated in the model to estimate the crop yield under different qualities of irrigation water. A groundwater balance constraint was imposed on the model, which mitigate the waterlogging problems, while making optimal allocation of land and water resources. The model results show a reduction in rice, mustard, barley, and gram areas against an increase in cotton, sugarcane, wheat, millet, and sorghum under optimal cropping pattern. Under the optimal land and water allocation, the groundwater use is increased, which in turn mitigate the waterlogging and salinity problems of the study area. The net annual return from the study area has increased by about 26%. The sensitivity analysis of the model parameters shows that the market price of crops is most sensitive parameter followed by the crop area and cost of cultivation. State agencies and farmers involved in the actual agricultural production process are advised to practice conjunctive use of canal water and groundwater to maximize their farm income. This strategy could also mitigate further rise in the watertable without installing expensive drainage systems, which is also not feasible because the groundwater quality is poor and drainage water may pose a serious disposal problem.