Retention Of Words Research Articles

Incidental Vocabulary Learning And Recall By Intermediate Foreign Language Students: The Influence Of Marginal Glosses, Dictionary Use, And Summary Writing

This study is an attempt to compare the effect of four reading conditions on incidental vocabulary learning and recall of intermediate EFL learners. A sample population of 120 Iranian intermediate students read two short passages in one of four reading conditions: 1) L1 Marginal Glosses (MG1 – provision of L1 translations of unknown words), 2) L2 Marginal Glosses (MG2 – provision of L2 meanings of unknown words), 3) Dictionary Use (DU – opportunity to use a dictionary), or 4) Summary Writing (SW – writing a little summary of both texts using new words). After reading, students were tested for their recall of 30 words that had appeared once to six times in the texts. Two weeks later, they were tested again to check long-term retention of words. Support was found for the hypothesis that the four vocabulary learning conditions and the time interval between the two tests have a meaningful influence on the retention of the meaning of unfamiliar target words. The other hypothesis assumed that the retention of the meaning of the words is the highest in SW group, and it lowers in DU group, MG1group and MG2 group respectively. All of the four reading conditions had a significant effect on incidental learning and recall of the words, but neither the immediate nor the delayed tests revealed significant differences among the four types.

The Synoptic Problem: On Matthew’s and Luke’s use of Mark

Summary In New Testament studies, the synoptic problem is concerned with the relationships between the gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke. Assuming Markan priority, we investigate the relationship between the words in Mark that are retained unchanged by Matthew and those that are retained unchanged by Luke. This is done by mapping the sequence of words in Mark into binary time series that represent the retention or non-retention of the individual words, and then carrying out a variety of logistic regression analyses.

The differential effects of two vocabulary instruction methods on EFL word learning: A study into task effectiveness

This study examines the effect of two vocabulary instruction treatments on word retention by 56 EFL learners. In particular, it focuses on the differential effects of a message-oriented treatment (reading text and answering comprehension questions) and a vocabulary-oriented treatment (reading text and performing two vocabulary tasks) on learners' recall and recognition of the meaning of 14 target words. Learners in the two groups were required to first read a text, in which they encountered the 14 target words for the first time, before carrying out their respective task. Both groups were required to process and actually use the target words when carrying out their task. Finally, both groups were allotted the same amount of time to complete their task. The results of immediate and delayed vocabulary post-tests indicate that the vocabulary-oriented treatment yielded greater vocabulary learning gains than the message-oriented treatment.

Fast Mapping Across Time: Memory Processes Support Children's Retention of Learned Words.

Children’s remarkable ability to map linguistic labels to referents in the world is commonly called fast mapping. The current study examined children’s (N = 216) and adults’ (N = 54) retention of fast-mapped words over time (immediately, after a 1-week delay, and after a 1-month delay). The fast mapping literature often characterizes children’s retention of words as consistently high across timescales. However, the current study demonstrates that learners forget word mappings at a rapid rate. Moreover, these patterns of forgetting parallel forgetting functions of domain-general memory processes. Memory processes are critical to children’s word learning and the role of one such process, forgetting, is discussed in detail – forgetting supports extended mapping by promoting the memory and generalization of words and categories.

The right thing at the right time: why ostensive naming facilitates word learning.

The current study examines how focusing children’s attention immediately after fast mapping improves their ability to retain novel names. Previous research suggests that young children can only retain novel names presented via referent selection if ostensive naming is provided and that such explicit naming works by increasing children’s attention to the target and decreasing their attention to the competitor objects (Horst and Samuelson, 2008). This explanation of the function of ostensive naming after referent selection trials was tested by drawing 24-month-old children’s attention to the target either by illuminating the target, covering the competitors, or both. A control group was given a social pragmatic cue (pointing). Children given social pragmatic cue support did not demonstrate retention. However, children demonstrated retention if the target object was illuminated, and also when it was illuminated and the competitors simultaneously dampened. This suggests that drawing children’s attention to the target object in a manner that helps focus children’s attention is critical for word learning via referent selection. Directing attention away from competitors while also directing attention toward a target also aids in the retention of novel words.

日本語版リーディングスパンテストにおける方略利用の個人差

Working memory is a system for processing and storing information. The Reading Span Test (RST), developed by Daneman and Carpenter (1980), is well-known for assessing individual difference in working memory. In the present investigation, we used the Japanese version of the RST (Osaka, 2002) and analyzed individual differences in strategy use from the viewpoint of strategy type (rehearsal, chaining, word-image, scene-image, and initial letter) and frequency of use (used in almost all trials, in half the trials, or not used). Data from the participants (N = 132) were assigned to groups according to the scores, for the total number of words correctly recalled and the proportion correct. The results showed that the frequency of word-image strategy use differed significantly between high-scoring subjects (HSS) and low-scoring subjects (LSS). HSS mainly used word-image and chaining strategies, while LSS used rehearsal and chaining strategies. This indicates that HSS used both verbal and visual strategies, whereas LSS relied only on verbal strategies. The use of the word-image is important for effective retention of words in memory.

Supporting Word Retrieval From Memory

Abstract This study investigated the effect of two meaning-oriented communicative tasks on L2 learners’ consolidation of new vocabulary met in a reading text on a familiar topic, building on the premises underlying the Dreyfus and Tsamir (2004) ‘Recognising, Building-with, and Constructing’ (RBC) model. Students in four lower intermediate EFL classes participated in the pre-test (of vocabulary size) post-test experimental study. Some of them only read the new text before taking an immediate and a delayed word retention test (control group); others read the text and afterwards completed comprehension questions (meaning-oriented receptive task). Still others, in addition, wrote a text similar in structure and contents to the input text while using the target words (meaning-oriented productive task). The fourth student group completed all three tasks consecutively. Our results show the superiority of the guided writing task over the ‘reading + comprehension questions’ and the ‘reading only’ conditions. On a theoretical level, content familiarity is shown to be an important mediator variable in early stages of vocabulary processing and consolidation.

The Impact Of Input On Early Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition

Abstract This study investigated the effect of two meaning-oriented communicative tasks on L2 learners’ consolidation of new vocabulary met in a reading text on a familiar topic, building on the premises underlying the Dreyfus and Tsamir (2004) ‘Recognising, Building-with, and Constructing’ (RBC) model. Students in four lower intermediate EFL classes participated in the pre-test (of vocabulary size) post-test experimental study. Some of them only read the new text before taking an immediate and a delayed word retention test (control group); others read the text and afterwards completed comprehension questions (meaning-oriented receptive task). Still others, in addition, wrote a text similar in structure and contents to the input text while using the target words (meaning-oriented productive task). The fourth student group completed all three tasks consecutively. Our results show the superiority of the guided writing task over the ‘reading + comprehension questions’ and the ‘reading only’ conditions. On a theoretical level, content familiarity is shown to be an important mediator variable in early stages of vocabulary processing and consolidation.

Opposite Effects of Cortisol on Consolidation of Temporal Sequence Memory during Waking and Sleep

Memory functions involve three stages: encoding, consolidation, and retrieval. Modulating effects of glucocorticoids (GCs) have been consistently observed for declarative memory with GCs enhancing encoding and impairing retrieval, but surprisingly, little is known on how GCs affect memory consolidation. Studies in rats suggest a beneficial effect of GCs that were administered during postlearning wake periods, whereas in humans, cortisol impaired memory consolidation when administered during postlearning sleep. These inconsistent results raise the question whether effects of GCs critically depend on the brain state during consolidation (sleep vs. wake). Here, we compare for the first time directly the effects of cortisol on memory consolidation during postlearning sleep and wakefulness in different measures of declarative memory. Cortisol (13 mg vs. placebo) was intravenously infused during a postlearning nap or a time-matched period of wakefulness after participants had encoded neutral and emotional text material. Memory for the texts was tested (a) by asking for the contents of the texts ("item" memory) and (b) for the temporal order of the contents within the texts ("relational" memory). Neither postlearning infusion of cortisol during sleep nor during wakefulness affected retention of content words of emotional or neutral texts. Critically, however, the retention of temporal order within the texts, known to rely most specifically on the hippocampus proper within the medial-temporal lobe memory system, was distinctly improved by cortisol infusion during the wake phase but impaired by cortisol during sleep. These results point toward fundamentally different mechanisms of hippocampal memory consolidation, depending on the brain state.

Bitter struggle for survival: Evolved bitterness embodiment of survival motivation

In four experiments, we tested the hypothesis that survival motivation is grounded in the physical experience of bitter taste. Chinese (Experiment 1) and non-Chinese participants (Experiment 2) who tasted a bitter drink were quicker than the control participants who drank plain water in responding to survival-related words in a lexical decision task. Chinese participants who chewed bitter lotus root were more likely to discount the future than those who chewed sour lemon (Experiment 3). Finally, surprise retention tests revealed that experiencing a bitter rather than sweet taste led to higher retention of words processed for survival rather than mating scenarios (Experiment 4). These findings support our prediction that the taste of bitterness embodies survival motivation because both are adaptations to harsh environment.

Incidental vocabulary acquisition: The effects of task type, word occurrence and their combination

We investigated how long-term retention of new words was affected by task type, number of word occurrences in the teaching materials and the combination of the two factors. The tasks were: reading a text with occasional Focus on Form when learners used dictionaries (T+F), or reading a text with Focus on Forms, i.e. word focused exercises (T+Fs). The words occurred 2—3, 4—5, and 6—7 times. Consequently, there were six conditions that reflected the 2 × 3 ‘task × occurrence’ combinations. Learners were exposed to 60 target words, 10 words in each condition during a 13-week course of study, and were subsequently tested on them by two unannounced tests: passive recall and passive recognition. An increase in word occurrence was found to have an effect on retention in T+Fs only. Starting with 4 occurrences, T+Fs fared better than T+F. Task type effect was superior to the effect of word occurrence in recall only (2 word exercises fared better than 6—7 occurrences in text). The value of word-focused practice was also confirmed by learners’ responses to an introspective questionnaire.

Using Post-Task Written Vocabulary Exercises in Task-Based Instruction

Task-based instruction, which emphasizes authentic communication and holistic language learning opportunities, has been a prominent topic in Asia for both researchers and teachers. Still, relatively few studies have addressed vocabulary acquisition from a task-based perspective, notwithstanding second language learners’ need to acquire thousands of words to deal with various language uses. In this paper, the teaching procedure and empirical data will be presented to showcase how 27 Hong Kong learners benefited from a combination of an authentic task and written vocabulary exercises in terms of receptive and productive retention of the target words. The results indicated that such a combination yielded better immediate and delayed retention than a purely communicative approach; however, form recall remained the most difficult type of word knowledge irrespective of the treatments. This highlights the value of traditional elements such as written exercises in task-based instruction.

The First Slow Step: Differential Effects of Object and Word-Form Familiarization on Retention of Fast-Mapped Words.

Recent research demonstrated that although twenty-four month-old infants do well on the initial pairing of a novel word and novel object in fast-mapping tasks, they are unable to retain the mapping after a five-minute delay. The current study examines the role of familiarity with the objects and words on infants' ability to bridge between the initial fast mapping of a name and object, and later retention in the service of slow mapping. Twenty-four-month-old infants were familiarized with either novel objects or novel names prior to the referent selection portion of a fast-mapping task. When familiarized with the novel objects, infants retained the novel mapping after a delay, but not when familiarized with the novel words. This suggests familiarity with the object versus the word form leads to differential encoding of the name-object link. We discuss the implications of this finding for subsequent slow mapping.

Working memory in simultaneous interpreters: Effects of task and age

This study examines whether interpreters have better working memory (WM) than non-interpreters, taking into account different WM components and the potential modulatory influence of age. Younger and older interpreters and non-interpreters were tested on reading span, nonword repetition, and order- and category-cued recall, using English, second-language materials. Articulation rate was also assessed. Interpreters outperformed non-interpreters in reading span and nonword repetition, but not cued recall and articulation rate. These results suggest that interpreters have better ability to manipulate information in working memory and process or store sub-lexical phonological representations, but have no advantage in short-term retention of words and their meaning. Compared to the other tested groups, younger interpreters were marginally better in nonword repetition and cued recall, suggesting that future studies on WM advantages in interpreters should consider the age factor.

The Role of Task‐Induced Involvement and Learner Proficiency in L2 Vocabulary Acquisition

Designing effective pedagogical tasks has been of critical interest among second‐language (L2) researchers and teachers. Accordingly, several claims about how to classify pedagogic task characteristics in terms of their effectiveness in L2 learning have been made. One such example is the involvement load hypothesis (Hulstijn & Laufer, 2001), which claims that learning new words during vocabulary‐focused tasks is dependent on the degree of cognitive processing required of an L2 learner by a given task. Building upon Hulstijn and Laufer's (2001) original research, which partially supported the hypothesis, the present study examined the hypothesis by exploring the interaction between task‐induced involvement and learners’ L2 proficiency on the initial learning and retention of target words. The study consisted of two experiments that were carried out with English‐as‐a‐second‐language learners at two different proficiency levels (i.e., matriculated undergraduate students vs. students in an Intensive English Program). Experiment 1 tested the hypothesis with three tasks imposing different levels of task‐induced involvement (n= 64), whereas Experiment 2 included two tasks hypothesized to represent the same task‐induced involvement (n= 20). In line with the predictions of the involvement load hypothesis, the findings of Experiment 1 indicated that a higher level of learner involvement during task performance promoted more effective initial learning and retention of target words. Additionally, Experiment 2 showed that different tasks with the same involvement load resulted in a similar amount of vocabulary learning. These results were generally consistent across different proficiency levels, suggesting no interaction effect between task‐induced involvement and L2 proficiency on vocabulary learning. The findings of the present study further the involvement load hypothesis by providing insights into how some individual differences—in this case L2 proficiency and cognitive involvement—might be more/less important to consider when implementing pedagogic tasks. Interestingly, the results indicated that as long as L2 learners’ cognitive and language abilities allow them to complete vocabulary tasks in a given time, a deeper level of processing of the new words, especially the evaluation component of task‐induced involvement during tasks, facilitates L2 vocabulary learning. Furthermore, the findings of Experiment 2 also provide insightful pedagogical implications demonstrating that it is possible to design different types of vocabulary tasks inducing similar amounts of involvement loads and that they can be equally beneficial for vocabulary learning. In task‐based language teaching, designing tasks involves a complex series of considerations such as understanding who the target learners are and what cognitive processes each task requires. The experiments presented in this article reexamined the involvement load hypothesis and utilized tasks designed with such considerations in mind in order to explore the effectiveness of various vocabulary learning tasks.

Developing Vocabulary and Conceptual Knowledge for Low-Income Preschoolers

The purpose of this design experiment was to research, test, and iteratively derive principles of word learning and word organization that could help to theoretically advance our understanding of vocabulary development for low-income preschoolers. Six Head Start teachers in morning and afternoon programs and their children ( N = 89) were selected to participate in the World of Words, a 12-min daily supplemental vocabulary intervention; six classes ( N = 89) served as a comparison group. Our questions addressed whether the difficulty of words influenced the acquisition and retention of words and whether learning words in taxonomies might support vocabulary development and inference generation. We addressed these questions in two design phases for a total intervention period of 16 weeks. Pre- and post-unit assessments measured children’s expressive language gains, categorical development, and inference generation. Significant differences were recorded between treatment and comparison groups on word knowledge and category development. Furthermore, children in the treatment group demonstrated the ability to infer beyond what was specifically taught. These results suggest that instructional design features may work to accelerate word learning for low-income children.

Contribution of norepinephrine to emotional memory consolidation during sleep

There is increasing evidence indicating that slow wave sleep (SWS) supports memory consolidation. This effect may in part originate from phasic noradrinergic (NE) activity occurring during SWS in the presence of tonically lowered NE levels. Here, we examined whether NE supports the consolidation of amygdala-dependent emotional memory during SWS. In a double-blind cross-over study, 15 men learned emotional and neutral materials (stories, pictures) in the evening before a 3-h period of early SWS-rich retention sleep, during which either placebo or clonidine, an α2-adrenoceptor agonist which blocks locus coeruleus NE release, was intravenously infused. Memory retrieval as well as affective ratings and heart rate responses to the pictures were assessed 23 h after learning. Clonidine reduced plasma NE levels but had no effect on SWS. While retention of story content words and pictures per se remained unaffected, clonidine distinctly blocked the superiority of emotional compared to neutral memory for temporal order, with this superiority of emotional over neutral memories observed only in the placebo condition. Heart rate responses to pictures were not affected, but whereas under placebo conditions familiar negative pictures were rated less arousing and with a more negative valence compared to pictures not seen before; these differences were abolished after clonidine. Given that memory for the temporal order of events depends on the hippocampus to a greater extent than item memory, our findings suggest that NE activity during early SWS-rich sleep facilitates consolidation of memories that involve both, a strong amygdalar and hippocampal component.

Towards a Mechanics of Voice for Plomer and Britten's 'Gloriana'

Critical writing on Gloriana , Benjamin Britten's opera for the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II with a libretto by William Plomer, has typically focused on issues tied to its premiere and subsequent reception and, less frequently, on how the opera represents Britten's concerns, his 'voice'. This essay considers two ways that Britten might be said to project his 'voice' in the opera: 'textural emphasis', the highlighting and obscuring of lines from the libretto, and 'instrumental commentary', orchestral interpolations not suggested in the libretto. Both techniques point to Britten's retention of words in a musical environment that seems to undermine them, an arrangement that allows for the perception of internal authorial dissent. By exploring a number of specific moments of disagreement between words and music in Gloriana , a pattern of compositional approaches emerges, and it becomes possible to propose a mechanics of how voice is produced in the opera.

Adaptive memory: Determining the proximate mechanisms responsible for the memorial advantages of survival processing.

J. S. Nairne, S. R. Thompson, and J. N. S. Pandeirada (2007) suggested that our memory systems may have evolved to help us remember fitness-relevant information and showed that retention of words rated for their relevance to survival is superior to that of words encoded under other deep processing conditions. The authors present 4 experiments that uncover the proximate mechanisms likely responsible. The authors obtained a recall advantage for survival processing compared with conditions that promoted only item-specific processing or only relational processing. This effect was eliminated when control conditions encouraged both item-specific and relational processing. Data from separate measures of item-specific and relational processing generally were consistent with the view that the memorial advantage for survival processing results from the encoding of both types of processing. Although the present study suggests the proximate mechanisms for the effect, the authors argue that survival processing may be fundamentally different from other memory phenomena for which item-specific and relational processing differences have been implicated. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved).

The importance of vowel diacritics for the temporary retention of high and low frequency Hebrew words of varying syllabic length

This study investigates the importance of vowel diacritics for the retention of Hebrew word lists, with word lists being manipulated along the dimension of word frequency and syllabic length. Eighty university students participated in the study. Half of the participants (40) were tested with the word lists presented in fully-pointed (voweled) Hebrew while the other half (40) were given the word lists in unpointed Hebrew (with vowel diacritics removed). Analyses of each group's recall rates and recall-order accuracy indicate that, overall, the presence of vowel diacritics had no facilitating effect on the participants' quantitative and qualitative Short Term Memory (STM) performance. This was found to be true whether word frequency (high vs. medium to low) or syllabic length (mono vs. trisyllabic) were computed as within-subject factors. Attempts to adequately interpret the absence of a pointing effect on STM performance based upon Orthographic Depth Hypothesis (ODH) and Grain Size Theory (GST) proved unfruitful. The authors propose an adaptation of the GST to the peculiarities of Hebrew orthography and discuss a morphology-centered grain-size theory (MGST).