Retention Ability Research Articles

Tailoring of microporosity of Tröger's base (TB) high temperature proton exchange membrane by miscible polymer blending

To further mitigate the phosphoric acid leakage in high temperature proton exchange membrane (PEM), the microporosity of Tröger's base (TB) membrane based on a V-shaped bridged bicyclic diamine has been fine-tailored readily by polymeric blending with a miscible polymer of intrinsic microporosity (PIM-1). As expected, the average cavity radius in the range of 3.46–4.21 Å has been achieved when the blending ratio of PIM-1 increases from 5 to 20 mol% due to the interaction between the amine group of TB and the nitrile group of PIM-1. The resulting PEMs show excellent PA retention ability. Notably, PIM/TB9 membrane with a suitable cavity radius of 3.5 Å and largest FFV4 of 49.1% exhibits an exciting PA retention of about 80%, which is much better than the pristine TB membrane. Thus, the remaining proton conductivity of PIM/TB9 is almost 5 times higher than that of TB membrane after 22 relative humidity cycle tests. Moreover, the resulting cell can run smoothly within a wide temperature range from 0 to 160 °C. The single cell performs for over 150 AST cycles and remains stable for >600 h with no visible voltage decay at 80 °C. Therefore, these results indicate the technical feasibility to improve the PA retention via fine-tuning the intrinsic microporosity of the PEMs through a direct blending method.

Effect of Marjoram Leaf Powder Addition on Nutritional, Rheological, Textural, Structural, and Sensorial Properties of Extruded Rice Noodles

Food-to-food fortification is an emerging technique to enrich the micronutrients in foods. Pertaining to this technique, noodles could also be fortified with natural fortificants. In this study, marjoram leaf powder (MLP) at a level of 2-10% was used as a natural fortificant to produce fortified rice noodles (FRNs) through an extrusion process. The MLP addition caused a significant increase in the iron, calcium, protein, and fiber in the FRNs. The noodles had a lower whiteness index than unfortified noodles but had a similar water absorption index. The water solubility index increased significantly due to the higher water retention ability of MLP. A rheological study showed a minimal effect of fortification on the gelling strength of the FRNs at lower levels. The microstructural studies found incremental cracks, which facilitated a lower cooking time and hardness but had an insignificant effect on the cooked noodle texture. Fortification improved the total phenolic content, antioxidant capacity, and total flavonoid content. However, no significant changes in bonds were observed, but a reduction in the noodles' crystallinity could be seen. The sensory analysis of the noodles reflected a higher acceptability of the 2-4% MLP fortified samples compared to the others. Overall, the MLP addition improved the nutritional content, antioxidant activity, and the cooking time but slightly affected the rheological, textural, and color properties of the noodles.

Maleic acid as an important monomer in synthesis of stimuli-responsive poly(acrylic acid-co-acrylamide-co-maleic acid) superabsorbent polymer

Poly(acrylic acid-co-acrylamide-co-maleic acid) (p(AA-co-AM-co-MA)) superabsorbent polymer was synthesized from acrylic acid (AA), acrylamide (AM), and maleic acid (MA) via free radical copolymerization. Results showed the presence of maleic acid in structure of superabsorbent has the key and superior role in creating a smart superabsorbent. The structure, morphology, and strength of the superabsorbent were characterized using FT-IR, TGA, SEM, and rheology analysis. The effect of different factors was investigated to determine the ability of water absorbency of the superabsorbent. According to optimized conditions, the water absorbency capacity of the superabsorbent in distilled water (DW) was 1348 g/g and in a solution containing 1.0 wt.% NaCl (SCS) was 106 g/g. The water retention ability of the superabsorbent was also investigated. The kinetic swelling of superabsorbent was identified by Fickian diffusion and Schott's pseudo-second-order model. Furthermore, the reusability of superabsorbent was studied in distilled water and saline solution. The ability of superabsorbent was investigated in simulated urea and glucose solutions, and very good results were obtained. The response ability of the superabsorbent was confirmed by swelling and shrinking behavior against changes of temperature, pH, and ionic strength.

ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING AND MEMORY IN <i>TRICHOGRAMMA TELENGAI</i> (HYMENOPTERA, TRICHOGRAMMATIDAE)

Miniaturization constrains insects with the task of preserving vital body functions in spite of significant reductions in body size. The effects of miniaturization on the functioning of the insect nervous system were investigated in the parasitoid Trichogramma telengai. Despite a decreased number of neurons and their volume, T. telengai demonstrated the ability for associative learning and memory retention for up to 6 h after training. Our thermal setup, in which we trained and tested the microinsects, based on the Morris water maze principle makes it possible to compare the associative learning abilities of animals from different taxonomic groups. Our data expand the understanding of the effects of miniaturization on the cognitive abilities of animals and will allow us to determine which structural factors limit the minimum size of the functional insect brain.

GeTe ultrathin film based phase-change memory with extreme thermal stability, fast SET speed, and low RESET power energy

We designed the phase-change memory (PCM) cell based on ultrathin GeTe film (∼10 nm) and homemade nanoscale electrode filling craft to improve data retention ability and reduce programming energy, respectively. It was found that the temperature for ten years’ data retention of this ultrathin GeTe film is 160 ± 32.8 °C, which is much higher than that of conventional Ge2Sb2Te5 (GST, 83 ± 20.6 °C) film. Benefit to the nature of fragile-to-strong crossover behavior in GeTe supercooled liquids that was confined in a two-dimension structure, a fast SET speed of 6 ns is also detected in this ultrathin GeTe PCM. Moreover, the RESET power consumption of this ultrathin GeTe PCM is measured as 1.8 ± 0.5 nJ, and it is much lower than that of GST PCM (16.5 ± 1.5 nJ), which is attributed to the nanoscale electrode of the devices. The above-mentioned improvements enable the application of ultrathin GeTe PCM in neuromorphic computing.

Camouflaged Virus‐Like‐Nanocarrier with a Transformable Rough Surface for Boosting Drug Delivery

AbstractDue to non‐specific strong nano–bio interactions, it is difficult for nanocarriers with permanent rough surface to cross multiple biological barriers to realize efficient drug delivery. Herein, a camouflaged virus‐like‐nanocarrier with a transformable rough surface is reported, which is composed by an interior virus‐like mesoporous SiO2 nanoparticle with a rough surface (vSiO2) and an exterior acid‐responsive polymer. Under normal physiological pH condition, the spikes on vSiO2 are hidden by the polymer shell, and the non‐specific strong nano–bio interactions are effectively inhibited. While in the acidic tumor microenvironment, the nanocarrier sheds the polymer camouflage to re‐expose its rough surface. So, the retention ability and endocytosis efficiency of the nanocarrier are great improved. Owing to it's the dynamically variable rough surface, the rationally designed nanocarrier exhibits extended blood‐circulation‐time and enhanced tumor accumulation.

Camouflaged Virus-Like-Nanocarrier with a Transformable Rough Surface for Boosting Drug Delivery.

Due to non-specific strong nano-bio interactions, it is difficult for nanocarriers with permanent rough surface to cross multiple biological barriers to realize efficient drug delivery. Herein, a camouflaged virus-like-nanocarrier with a transformable rough surface is reported, which is composed by an interior virus-like mesoporous SiO2 nanoparticle with a rough surface (vSiO2 ) and an exterior acid-responsive polymer. Under normal physiological pH condition, the spikes on vSiO2 are hidden by the polymer shell, and the non-specific strong nano-bio interactions are effectively inhibited. While in the acidic tumor microenvironment, the nanocarrier sheds the polymer camouflage to re-expose its rough surface. So, the retention ability and endocytosis efficiency of the nanocarrier are great improved. Owing to it's the dynamically variable rough surface, the rationally designed nanocarrier exhibits extended blood-circulation-time and enhanced tumor accumulation.

High-performance non-volatile memory devices from metallomacrocyclic organic micro/nanostructure: Control via molecular manipulation

Here, we report the synthesis of micro/nanostructures of a metal-macrocyclic organic compound, viz, Iron phthalocyanine (FePc) via cost-effective solvothermal method and consequent fabrication of high-performance resistive memory devices from FePc micro/nanorod embedded in poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) matrix. The devices exhibited bipolar and non-volatile resistive switching characteristics. Interestingly, the performances of the devices (On/Off current ratio) improved by several orders of magnitude when an additional buffer layer of PMMA was deposited prior to the deposition of the active film (FePc embedded in PMMA). The variation in thickness of the PMMA buffer layer indicated that at an optimum thickness ca. 15 nm, the best performances were obtained with switching (Set) voltage ca. 1.6 V, On/Off current ratio ∼ 106 and retention ability of more than 10 h. The conduction mechanism has been discussed by linear fitting of the characteristics curves in both low and high resistance states of the device. The analysis lead to the conclusion that trapping/detrapping of charge carriers at the redox and defect sites within the active film (FePc embedded in PMMA) and at the PMMA-FePc/PMMA interface resulted in the resistive switching of the device and a trap induced space charge limited current was found to dominate in the Off- and On-state of the device.

New anhydrous proton exchange membranes based on polypyrrolone (PPy) for high-temperature polymer electrolyte fuel cells

Polypyrrolone (PPy) possesses excellent heat resistance and mechanical properties, moreover, the N-heterocycle contained in the PPy allows the absorption of phosphoric acid (PA) for proton conduction. In the present work, PPy is synthesized by a two-step method and evaluated for the first time as the polymeric material for high temperature proton exchange membranes (HT-PEMs). The PA-doped PPy membrane reaches a peak power density of 582 mW cm−2 at 160 °C under fully anhydrous conditions, besides, the fuel cell exhibits excellent durability over a period of 300 h with a load voltage decay of only 0.032% per hour and remains 0.647 V after the test. Further, the PPy-impregnated polyimide (PI) nanofiber mat composite membrane (PI@PPy) with an optimal thickness is fabricated with enhanced dimensional stability, of which acid swelling ratio noticeably declined by 51% in area and 25% in volume. A higher peak power density (634 mW cm−2) and less cell voltage reduction is also observed in the composite membrane, benefits from the trade–off between proton conductivity and PA retention ability. The results of the present study may contribute to further studies on polypyrrolone-based HT-PEMs and composite membranes.

Self-assembled porphyrin-based photosensitizer nanomicelles for enhanced photodynamic therapy

Preparation of a supermacromolecular photosensitizer that can stay in the tumor site and exhibits high photoconversion efficiency is useful for improving the efficacy of tumor photodynamic therapy (PDT). In this paper, we prepared tetratroxaminobenzene porphyrin (TAPP) loaded biodegradable silk nanospheres (NSs) and characterized their morphology, optical properties and the singlet oxygen-generating capacity. On this basis, the effect of in vitro photodynamic killing efficacy by as-prepared nanometer micelles was evaluated and the tumor retention ability and tumor killing effect of the nanometer micelles were verified by the co-culture of photosensitizer micelle and tumor cells. The results show that tumor cells were killed well under 660 nm laser irradiation even at a lower concentration of as-prepared TAPP NSs. In addition, due to the excellent safety of as-prepared nanomicelle, they exhibit great potential applications in improved tumor PDT.

Fine-grained multi-focus image fusion based on edge features

Multi-focus image fusion is a process of fusing multiple images of different focus areas into a total focus image, which has important application value. In view of the defects of the current fusion method in the detail information retention effect of the original image, a fusion architecture based on two stages is designed. In the training phase, combined with the polarized self-attention module and the DenseNet network structure, an encoder-decoder structure network is designed for image reconstruction tasks to enhance the original information retention ability of the model. In the fusion stage, combined with the encoded feature map, a fusion strategy based on edge feature map is designed for image fusion tasks to enhance the attention ability of detail information in the fusion process. Compared with 9 classical fusion algorithms, the proposed algorithm has achieved advanced fusion performance in both subjective and objective evaluations, and the fused image has better information retention effect on the original image.

Investigation of β-caryophyllene as terpene penetration enhancer: Role of stratum corneum retention

Terpenes are usually used as penetration enhancers (PE) for transdermal drug delivery (TDD) of various molecules. However, TDD of hydrophilic macromolecules is becoming an urgent challenge due to their potent activities. The aim of this study was to investigate the potential application of β-caryophyllene (β-CP), a sequiterpene, as PE for TDD of hydrophilic macromolecules for the first time. Commonly used PEs, namely azone and 1,8-cineole (1,8-CN), were applied as controls. Transepidermal water loss (TEWL) analysis revealed that the reduction of skin barrier function caused by β-CP was reversible. Transdermal experiments showed that when skin was treated with β-CP or azone, there was a significant permeation-enhancing effect on fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) and FITC-dextran with different molecular weight (MW) of 4k or 10k. CLSM analysis confirmed that β-CP and azone can facilitate the penetration of FD-4k through epidermis and dermis. However, the cytotoxicity of azone against epidermal keratinocytes was significantly higher than β-CP and 1,8-CN. Additionally, application of β-CP and 1,8-CN didn't increase erythema index (EI) but the EI values of azone group increased significantly and irreversibly, indicating the high biocompatibility of the natural terpenes. β-CP had better permeation-enhancing effect and higher stratum corneum (SC) retention than 1,8-CN due to its increased carbon chain length and lipophilicity, as further demonstrated by molecular dynamics (MD) simulation studies. Skin electrical resistance (SER) and attenuated total reflection fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) studies revealed a significant interfering effect of β-CP on SC lipids. Taken together, β-CP exhibited significant penetration enhancement of hydrophilic macromolecules due to its SC retention and SC lipid fluidization ability.

NiO/g-C3N4/PANI/Ni-metal-organic framework composite for high-energy supercapacitor electrodes

This work is prioritized in tuning the capacitive performance of nanostructured nickel-metal-organic framework (Ni-MOF) as a high-performance electrode material for supercapacitors. The enhancement in performance is conducted by choosing a material combination that includes a metal oxide, carbonaceous, and conductive polymer comprising nickel oxide/graphitic carbon nitride/polyaniline. The material coupling is carried out by a simple reflux method using benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic acid as an organic ligand. Various characterization tools are used to confirm structural, chemical, electronic, thermal, and morphological properties. The tuned quaternary composite, nickel oxide/graphitic carbon nitride/polyaniline/Ni-MOF, exhibited a battery-type storage mechanism delivering a high specific capacitance (specific capacity) of 2,420 F/g (584 mAh/g) at the current density of 5 A/g, with a specific capacitance retention ability of 75% at 20 A/g. A kinetic study using a rotational disk electrode is carried out, and the highest diffusion coefficient of 8.64 × 10−9 cm2/s is obtained. In the fabrication supercapacitor, the quaternary composite delivered an energy density of 31.3 Wh/kg at a power density of 1,491 W/kg. It was found to be 1.5 times more than the ternary-based supercapacitor. Finally, stability tests were carried out, and the fabricated supercapacitors reached 99.5% stability even after 3,000 charges and discharges. For practical application demonstration, Swagelok cells are manufactured and charged to glow with different color light-emitting diode lights. This work brings a clear path to developing MOF-based composites for high-energy storage applications.

Preparation of carbon nanotube/cellulose hydrogel composites and their uses in interfacial solar-powered water evaporation

Cellulose extracted from corncobs, a bulk agricultural waste product, by a solvent at −12 °C, was composited with carbon nanotubes (CNTs) with excellent light absorption properties to construct CNT/cellulose hydrogel composites. Taking advantage of the superior water retention ability and degradability of cellulose hydrogels, and the high-efficiency solar-thermal conversion performance, excellent mechanical properties and biocompatibility of CNTs, CNT/cellulose hydrogel composites are used in water purification by interfacial solar-powered evaporation. The effects of the addition of CNTs on the solar energy absorption, mechanical properties and interfacial solar-thermal water evaporation efficiency of the composites were investigated. With an optimum CNT content of 0.2 wt.%, the composite had an average evaporation rate of ~1.52 kg m−2 h−1 and a solar-steam conversion efficiency about 92%. After continuous evaporation in seawater for 8 h, the evaporation rate of the composite remained at about 1.37 kg m−2 h−1 without salt precipitation, indicating its strong resistance to salt. The quality of the purified water was superior to the WHO and EPA standards for drinking water. When the composite was used in concentrated acid/alkaline aqueous systems, dye wastewater and heavy metal ion polluted water, the evaporation rates remained in the range of 1.30-1.40 kg m−2 h−1, and the solar-steam conversion efficiencies reached 80%-86%. The retention rates for both organic pollutants and salt were as high as 99.9%, confirming the evaporation stability of the composite. This work indicates that an evaporator based on the CNT/cellulose hydrogel composite has broad application prospects in the fields of seawater desalination and industrial wastewater purification.

Experiment study on seismic behavior of squat UHPC shear walls subjected to tension-shear combined cyclic load

Five squat UHPC shear walls with high axial tension ratio ranging from 0.5 to 0.6 were tested under tension-shear combined cyclic load to replicate seismic performance of bottom shear walls in high-rise buildings. All specimens exhibited shear-sliding failure mode characterized by multiple shear-related cracks distributed in a dense array and full-length localization of horizontal crack along the end of anchorage rebars. The seismic behaviors were comprehensively evaluated by hysteretic responses, energy dissipation capacity, strength and stiffness degradation. Additionally, detailed analysis on the strain development of vertical reinforcement and web horizontal rebars were carried out to study their shear resistance contribution. It was found that, with the assistance of steel fibers providing an efficient shear resistance consistent with the varying direction of principal tensile stress, the shear capacity of UHPC shear wall was slightly improved even when axial tension ratio increased to 0.6. The ultimate drift capacity of UHPC specimens reached 3.3% drift with an excellent strength retention ability of more than 500kN in this test. Besides, the accumulated energy consumption of UHPC specimen after crack localization improved by 38% compared with the normal concrete shear wall. Results of strain analysis demonstrated that vertical reinforcement provided an effective clamping force in the shear-sliding resistance. A modified design formula considering efficient tension resistance offered by UHPC was proposed with adequate safety concerns and accuracy.

Shape Memory Alloys in Textile Platform: Smart Textile-Composite Actuator and Its Application to Soft Grippers.

In recent years, many researchers have aimed to construct robotic soft grippers that can handle fragile or unusually shaped objects without causing damage. This study proposes a smart textile-composite actuator and its application to a soft robotic gripper. An active fiber and an inactive fiber are combined together using knitting techniques to manufacture a textile actuator. The active fiber is a shape memory alloy (SMA) that is wire-wrapped with conventional fibers, and the inactive fiber is a knitting yarn. A knitted textile structure is flexible, with an excellent structure retention ability and high compliance, which is suitable for developing soft grippers. A driving source of the actuator is the SMA wire, which deforms under heating due to the shape memory effect. Through experiments, the course-to-wale ratio, the number of bundling SMA wires, and the driving current value needed to achieve the maximum deformation of the actuator were investigated. Three actuators were stitched together to make up each finger of the gripper, and layer placement research was completed to find the fingers' suitable bending angle for object grasping. Finally, the gripping performance was evaluated through a test of grasping various object shapes, which demonstrated that the gripper could successfully lift flat/spherical/uniquely shaped objects.

Enhancing the compatibility of normal-phase chromatography x reversed−phase chromatography by combination of low−temperature sensitive aqueous-phase compatible normal- phase chromatography and at−column dilution modulation

The nearly opposite retention mechanism in the two-dimensional liquid chromatography (2D−LC), which combines normal phase liquid chromatography (NPLC) and reversed phase liquid chromatography (RPLC), shows extremely high orthogonality and theoretical peak capacity. However, peak breakthrough and peak distortion caused by the highly incompatible 2D mobile phases counteracts the advantages offered by high orthogonality. To address this difficulty, this study proposes a comprehensive two-dimensional NPLC × RPLC integrating temperature-sensitive aqueous-phase compatible normal-phase chromatography (TSACNPLC) and at-column dilution modulation (ACDM). The proposed 2D−LC system uses an aqueous-miscible acetonitrile/methanol eluent in the 1st D NPLC, instead of an aqueous-phase immiscible eluent, such as n-hexane/methanol, to increase the miscibility with the RP mobile phase system. Additionally, the system exploits temperature-sensitive retention behavior to enhance the retention ability of aqueous-phase compatible NPLC. To verify the feasibility of the proposed 2D−LC, this study selected three multi-component samples with mid-to-low polarity, including ethoxylated (n ≈ 6) bisphenol A (BPA-6EO), ethoxylated (n ≈ 6) tristearylphenol (TSP-6EO), and safflower methanol extract. Next, the effectiveness of the constructed 2D−LC was systematically investigated, including low temperature-induced retention enhancement of NPLC, overcoming solvent incompatibility by ACDM, and optimization of 2 D separation conditions, was systematically investigated.

Sebum‐Membrane‐Inspired Protein‐Based Bioprotonic Hydrogel for Artificial Skin and Human‐Machine Merging Interface

AbstractAs an on‐skin electronic device, artificial skin shows great potential in medical monitoring and personal electronics, which also holds promise to develop human‐machine merging interfaces. However, merging artificial skins with human bodies is largely restricted by the dissimilarity of material compositions in existing artificial skins and biological tissues. Naturally conductive protein is a potential material candidate for artificial skins, nevertheless, it suffers from the critical issue of dehydration which harms its proton conductivity. Inspired by the sebum membrane of human skin, herein, a protein‐based bioprotonic hydrogel (PBH) with reliable water retention ability is reported for artificial skins. The bovine serum albumin with natural proton conductivity is utilized in the PBH, and the glycerol that originally presents on human skin surface is used as an artificial sebum membrane to retain water. The PBH can act as a bioprotonic skin (B‐skin) for collecting electrophysiological signals and self‐powered sensing. Based on the B‐skin, intelligent robot and cellphone control systems are demonstrated. Compared with present artificial skins, this B‐skin is all made out of biological materials that are consistent with material components of human skin tissues including proteins, endogenous glycerol, and water. Such a B‐skin may enable the development of next‐generation human‐machine merging interfaces.

Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) Electrospun Nanofibers Containing Natural Deep Eutectic Solvents Exhibiting a 3D Rugose Morphology and Charge Retention Properties.

In the present study, electrospun nanofibers of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV), a biodegradable polyester, containing natural deep eutectic solvents (NADES) were obtained and reported for the first time, exhibiting an unreported 3D morphology and enhanced charge retention properties. Choline chloride (ChCl)/urea/water in a molar ratio of 1:2:1 was used as the NADES model system. Electrospun nanofibers were produced from a 10 wt % solution of PHBV containing 26 wt % NADES with respect to the polymer and were deposited on different substrates, that is, aluminum foil and non-woven spunbond polypropylene (PP). The morphology and charge retention ability were characterized under different conditions and on different substrates. The attained fiber morphology for the NADES-containing mats showed an average fiber diameter of around 300 nm, whereas the pure PHBV polymer under the same conditions produced electrospun fibers of around 880 nm. However, the deposition of PHBV/ChCl/urea/water fibers resulted in a surprising macroscopic rugose 3D surface morphology made of aligned nanofibers when processed at 50% relative humidity (RH). The nanofiber grammages above which this 3D morphology, associated with NADES-induced charge retention, formed was found to be dependent on the substrate used and RH. This morphology was not seen at 20% RH nor when pure PHBV was produced. Charge stability studies revealed that PHBV/ChCl/urea/water nanofibers exhibited lasting charge retention, especially when sandwiched between spunbond polypropylene textiles. Finally, such multilayer structures containing a very thin double layer of PHBV/ChCl/urea/water fibers after corona treatment exhibited improved paraffin aerosol penetration, which was ascribed to the combination of thinner fibers and their charge retention capacity. The here-developed electrospun PHBV fibers containing NADES demonstrated for the first time a new potential application as electret filter media.

Influence of Study Questions as Advance Organizers on Students’ Academic Achievement and Retention in Physics in Plateau State, Nigeria

This study investigated the influence of Study Questions as Advance Organizers on Students’ Academic Achievement and Retention in Secondary School Physics in Mangu L. G. A., Plateau State. The research design is quasi experimental pretest, posttest and non-equivalent group of independent variables. The total population of students is 1,094 with male population of 787 and female population of 307 drawn from 11 secondary schools. The sample consisted of 97 students with 76 in the experimental and 21 in the control group while the instruments used for data collection was Physics Achievement Test (PAT) for both students’ achievement and retention in physics with a reliability coefficient of r=0.796. The tools used for the analysis and testing of hypotheses were descriptive statistics of mean and standard deviation and the t-test for paired samples variables. The findings showed that students in the experimental group had higher achievement mean scores; students in the experimental group showed high retention ability and that there is a significant difference in the mean achievement score of students in the control and experimental group; there is a significant difference in the retention of students in the experimental group and after the entire treatment period of exposure to study questions. The study recommends among others, that; the ministry of education through the education resource center in plateau state, school administrators and the government provide adequate training and retraining of teachers to enhance their competence and mastery of how to use study question for effective teaching and learning process.