Volume Fraction Of Retained Austenite Research Articles

Effect of Si on the deformation behavior of retained austenite and annealed martensite in medium Mn steels

The present study systematically investigated the effect of Si additions from 0 to 4 wt % on the deformation mechanism of a Fe-0.2C-6.8Mn (wt. %) medium Mn steel. The duplex microstructure consisting of film-like retained austenite (RA) and lath-shaped annealed martensite (AM) was produced for different Si alloyed steels by annealing treatments. They have similar volume fraction of RA. The effect of Si content on the dynamic strain aging (DSA) of RA and the serration type of tensile curves, as well as the fine structure evolution within AM during deformation was studied in detail. For the different Si alloyed steels, their tensile curves all exhibit flow serrations, accompanied with the propagation of the Portevine-Le Châtelier (PLC) band caused by DSA in RA. The serration type was sensitive to Si content. For the high Si steel, only type B serrations appear. This is attributed to the high Si content in RA, promoting aged dislocations by C atoms due to the repulsive interaction between C and Si atoms. For the low Si and Si free steels, type A serrations occur after type B serrations disappear at a certain strain. The mechanical stability and Mn/Si contents of RA play an important role in the PLC band propagation. The Si content has also an important effect on the evolution of dislocation configuration within AM during deformation. In the low and Si free steels, the dislocation multiplication and tangles, as well as the formation of dislocation walls, dividing up the laths appear in the AM. While in the high Si steel, it is found that the dislocation cells appear within the AM due to Si addition promoting the formation of screw dislocations by neutron diffraction technique, and the cross slip of screw dislocations as a necessary mechanism for dislocation cell formation. The formation of dislocation configuration with low energy is believed to be another essential factor improving the mechanical properties, besides the transformation-induced plasticity effect. This work paves a new pathway towards tailoring dislocation configuration for designing a new generation advanced high-strength steel.

Effects of austempering on the microstructure and mechanical properties of high-strength nanostructured bainitic steel containing 3.5 wt% aluminum

This study aims to produce a cost-effective and low-density, high-strength nanostructured bainitic steel by optimizing the austempering process conditions. To do this, a steel containing 0.8C-1.5Mn-0.6 Cr-0.35Mo-3.5Al was selected and the effects of austempering time and temperature on the microstructure and mechanical properties of this steel were studied. Xrd technique was used to recognize the phases present in the microstructure and measure the retained austenite volume fraction and carbon content. Hardness measurements showed that the highest value was obtained from the specimen containing the highest volume fraction of the bainitic ferrite associated with the retained austenite with the highest carbon content, at the completion time of transformation. Such a combination of microstructure and hardness was applied to find the optimum time at different temperatures during the austempering process. The microstructures of the optimal specimens were evaluated through optical microscopy (OM) and field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), and the average thickness of the bainitic ferrite plates was calculated. Finally, tensile tests were performed on the optimal specimens to assess the fracture surface through FESEM. For high steel with 3.5 wt% Al, the results indicated that it is possible to obtain a microstructure consisting of bainitic ferrite plates with an average thickness of 53 nm surrounded by the carbon-rich retained austenite with a hardness of 561HV, a yield stress of 1614 MPa, an ultimate tensile strength of 1981 MPa, and a total elongation of 9 %.

Effect of Retained Austenite on the Microstructure and Micro-Hardness of AISI 4330 Low Alloy Steel Using X-Ray Diffraction method

The mechanical properties of low alloy steel are significantly influenced by retained austenite (RA). Consequently, using the X-Ray diffraction (XRD) measurement method, the retained Austenite volume fractions in AISI4330 alloy steel have been assessed in this article. The specimens underwent heat treatment at various heating temperatures (800 ֯C, 900 1000 ֯C) and cooling rates (Water and Oil). The findings demonstrate that retained Austenite formation rises with rising heating (Austenitizing) temperatures for the same quenching media as well as with rising cooling rates. The specimens were heated to a temperature of 1000 °C and then quenched in water, yielding the highest amount of retained austenite (7.733 wt%), and the lowest amount (1.977 wt%), which was obtained when the specimens were heated to a temperature of 800 °C and quenched in oil. The Vickers method was employed to conduct micro-hardness testing, and the results demonstrate that hardness values are reduced as heating temperatures increase. Optical microscopy was used to investigate the effects of retained austenite on the microstructure. The results show that bainite and/or martensite phases with a small amount of retained austenite dominate the microstructure at low cooling rates, whereas martensite and retained austenite phases dominate the microstructure at higher heating and cooling rates.

The Impact of Tempering Temperature on Retained Austenite and Mechanical Properties of 1.2842 Tool Steel

This work investigates the impact of tempering temperature on the mechanical properties quenched 1.2842 (O2) cold work tool steel depending on the volume fraction of retained austenite (RA). The tempering temperature significantly influences proportion of RA and the mechanical properties. Therefore, the tempering temperature and the volume fractions of RA in through-hardened tool steels must be optimized to minimize dimensional variations and augment performance in service. In this work, the hardened samples were subjected to tempering process at different tempering temperatures and hardnes, impact and tensile tests were applied to the samples. Then the results obtained from these tests were analyzed and optimum tempering temperature was defined. The findings reveal that low-temperature tempering leads to a robust stabilization of the RA phase and better mechanical properties for the steel investigated.

Effect of rapid tempering at high temperature on microstructure, mechanical properties and stability of retained austenite of medium carbon ultrafine bainitic steel

Rapid tempering at high temperature is beneficial to release residual stress. However, the evolution of microstructure and mechanical properties of ultrafine bainitic steel after rapid tempering at high temperature is still unclear. In this research, the effect of rapid tempering at high temperature on microstructure, mechanical properties and mechanical stability of retained austenite (RA) of a medium-carbon ultrafine bainitic steel were studied in detail. Results show that after a rapid tempering at 550 °C, the volume fraction of RA decreased gradually, and the carbon atoms in bainitic ferrite (BF) gradually diffused out of the lattice and finally formed carbides, and the BF plate gradually coarsened. When the tempering time is only 2 min, the carbon clusters formed, strengthening the matrix and stabilizing the RA, which result in the highest yield strength, and the highest impact toughness of the steel. With the extension of tempering time, nano-carbides precipitated and gradually grew up, and the dislocation density in steel decreased, resulting in a gradual decrease in the yield strength of the steel and the mechanical stability of RA. However, the deformation ability and strain hardening ability of the BF matrix gradually increase, so that the tensile strength of the steel gradually increases. The decomposition of RA and the formation of brittle martensite making the impact toughness of the steel gradually decrease. This study can provide theoretical support for the development of rapid tempering process of ultrafine bainitic steel.

Achieving 2.2 GPa Ultra-High Strength in Low-Alloy Steel Using a Direct Quenching and Partitioning Process.

Advanced high-strength steels (AHSS) have a wide range of applications in equipment safety and lightweight design, and enhancing the strength of AHSS to the ultra-high level of 2 GPa is currently a key focus. In this study, a new process of thermo-mechanical control process followed by direct quenching and partitioning (TMCP-DQP) was developed based on Fe-0.4C-1Mn-0.6Si (wt.%) low-alloy steel, and the effects of microstructure evolution on mechanical properties under TMCP-DQP process and conventional hot rolled quenched and tempered process (HR-QT) were comparatively studied. The results show that the TMCP-DQP process not only shortened the processing steps but also achieved outstanding comprehensive mechanical properties. The TMCP-DQP steel exhibited a tensile strength of 2.23 GPa, accompanied by 11.9% elongation and a Brinell hardness of 624 HBW, with an impact toughness of 28.5 J at -20 °C. In contrast, the HR-QT steel exhibited tensile strengths ranging from 2.16 GPa to 1.7 GPa and elongations between 5.2% and 12.2%. The microstructure of TMCP-DQP steel primarily consisted of lath martensite, containing thin-film retained austenite (RA), nanoscale rod-shaped carbides, and a minor number of nanoscale twins. The volume fraction of RA reached 7.7%, with an average carbon content of 7.1 at.% measured by three-dimensional atom probe tomography (3DAP). Compared with the HR-QT process, the TMCP-DQP process resulted in a finer microstructure, with a prior austenite grain (PAG) size of 11.91 μm, forming packets and blocks with widths of 5.12 μm and 1.63 μm. The TMCP-DQP process achieved the ultra-high strength of low-alloy steel through the synergistic effects of grain refinement, dislocation strengthening, and precipitation strengthening. The dynamic partitioning stage stabilized the RA through carbon enrichment, while the relaxation stage reduced a small portion of the dislocations generated by thermal deformation, and the self-tempering stage eliminated internal stresses, all guaranteeing considerable ductility and toughness. The TMCP-DQP process may offer a means for industries to streamline their manufacturing processes and provide a technological reference for producing 2.2 GPa grade AHSS.

Influence of Austempering Temperature on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of High‐Silicon Carbide‐Free Bainitic Steel

The microstructural evolution of a novel high‐silicon carbide‐free bainitic steel at different austempering temperatures is investigated. The microstructure is evaluated by means of optical and electron microscopy, X‐ray diffraction, microhardness, and nanohardness. Results show a variation in the amount of stabilized retained austenite changing the temperature of the isothermal treatment. In particular, it is observed an increase in the retained austenite volume fraction increasing the temperature up to 350 °C, while further increase leads to a reduction. Moreover, increasing the isothermal holding temperature from 250 °C, through 300, 350, and 370 °C, a progressive bainite coarsening and an increase in the amount of stabilized carbon‐enriched retained austenite are observed. Tensile tests reveal an excellent combination of mechanical properties: mechanical strength in the range 1276–1988 MPa and total elongation 0.18–0.44.

Structure-property relationship in vanadium micro-alloyed TRIP steel subjected to the isothermal bainite transformation process

Structure-property relationship in vanadium micro-alloyed TRIP steel is investigated focusing on austenite transformation, precipitation behavior and mechanical performance. Microstructural evolution of the steel during processing was characterized mainly using EBSD, TEM and APT techniques; and its influence on mechanical properties was discussed. The TRIP steel exhibits complex microstructure including intercritical ferrite (IF), bainitic ferrite (BF), retained austenite (RA) and martensite. After identical intercritical annealing (IA), IF fraction keeps constant, BF and RA fractions increase while martensite fraction decreases with decreasing isothermal bainite transformation (IBT) temperature from 470 to 380 °C. The initially precipitated vanadium carbides (VC) in the hot-rolled specimen undergo coarsening during IA process, accompanied with some newly precipitated VC in either ferrite or in austenite, confirmed by the co-existence of small-sized and coarsened VC after IA process, as well as occurrence of K–S orientation relationship between VC and the α-Fe matrix. Ultra-fine average grain size of less than 1 μm in the TRIP heat-treated steel is achieved by the refining effect of these nano-scale VC precipitates, which can inhibit phase boundary (PB) migration during IA process and promote bainite transformation during subsequent IBT process. The higher volume fraction of RA accompanied with higher carbon enrichment intensifies sustainable strain hardening and finally increased ductility of the specimens treated under lower IBT temperature. In the IBT-380 specimen with the highest RA and BF fractions, the occurrence of micro-yielding phenomenon is a result of the Cottrell atmosphere in soft domain BF and stress relaxation due to RA to martensite transformation, during which the soft domain IF/RA/BF and hard domain martensite yields step by step. An excellent mechanical performance is thus achieved in the IBT-380 specimen, meeting the requirements for the 3rd generation advanced auto-steel.

Roles of Al in enhancing the thermal stability of reverted austenite and mechanical properties of a medium-Mn TRIP steel containing 2.7 Mn

Often, the addition of more than 4 wt.% Mn to medium-Mn steels is necessary to enhance the thermal stability of intercritical austenite for achieving sufficient amounts of retained austenite (RA) at room temperature. In this paper, a medium-Mn steel with Mn content as low as 2.7 wt.% was designed via alloying with a small amount of Al, and the microstructure and mechanical properties of the steel, subjected to intercritical annealing (IA) at 745 °C for different times followed by oil quenching, were investigated. Results show that the volume fraction of RA increases first and then decreases with IA time, with the maximum of 0.36 obtained at IA time of 50 min. It is demonstrated that Al addition slows down the interface migration and growth kinetics of reverted austenite via retarding C diffusion in ferrite during IA, which, hence, decreases the amount and size of the reverted austenite and partitions more C and Mn into it. This suggests that Al plays a favorable role in enhancing the thermal stability of reverted austenite and increasing the amount of austenite retained at room temperature. Due to the presence of large amounts of RA and the strong transformation-induced plasticity effect generated during plastic deformation, the steel exhibits persistent high strain hardening and superior mechanical properties, comparable to those of reported medium-Mn steels containing higher Mn content. The present result offers a new insight into the role of Al in adjusting microstructure-property relationships and opens a promising way for designing low-cost, high performance medium-Mn steels with low Mn content for industrial applications.

Strain-Induced Phase Transformation Modeling of QP980 Steel and Its Application to Complex Loading Paths

Quenching and partitioning (QP) steel has attracted much focus due to the effect of phase transformation induced plasticity (TRIP). However, the TRIP behavior makes it difficult to accurately predict the strain and stress distribution as well as the phase transformation behavior of QP steel. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of the QP980 microstructure were produced in this study, characterized by a combination of lath martensite, polygonal ferrite and retained austenite. The volume fraction evolution of retained austenite with equivalent plastic strain (EPS) of uniaxial tension was obtained by electron-backscatter diffraction. The phase transformation kinetics equations of QP980 were deduced based on the phase transformation model proposed by Olson and Cohen (simplified as O-C theory), considering the effects of strain rate, deformation temperature and stress state. A constitutive model on the dependence of the phase transformation was proposed to reveal the relation between metallographic characteristics and mechanical performance of QP980 steel during deformation. The User subroutine VUMAT in ABAQUS/Explicit was implemented to describe the volume fraction of retained austenite (VFRA) under different stress states. The established phase transformation and constitutive model were applied to three kinds of complex path loading tests. The variation in the retained austenite under complex strain paths was obtained and compared with the experimental results.

Q&P Response of a Medium Carbon Low Alloy Steel

An Fe-0.44%C-1.8%Si-1.3%Mn-0.82%Cr-0.28%Mo steel was subjected to quenching followed by low-temperature tempering (Q&T) and quenching and partitioning (Q&P) processing after full austenitization. The Q&P treatment led to an increase in the volume fraction of retained austenite (RA) by factors ranging from 30 to 40 depending on the quenching temperature, Tq, and an additional precipitation of transition η-carbides in the martensitic matrix. The Q&P processing provided a decrease in the yield stress (YS) from 1730 to 1350 MPa and an increase in the ductility by a factor of 3; the product of strength and elongation (PSE) increased from 13.7 to 32 GPa·%. The novelty of the work lies in establishing the origin of the good ductility and high YS of Q&P steel. Blocky-type RA plays a vital role in the effect of Q&P processing on mechanical properties. The main feature of RA is a very high dislocation density proving the strength of ~1000 MPa of this structural component. The strength of RA controls the YS of the steel if its volume fraction is ≥25%. Ductility is provided by the almost full transformation of RA into strain-induced martensite under tension. The localization of plastic deformation in the form of deformation bands is associated with the γ→α′ transformation. Medium carbon Q&P steel with a high volume fraction of RA meets the requirements for advanced high-strength steel (AHSS) belonging to the third generation of AHSS due to the combination of the YS > 1050 MPa with the PSE > 30 GPa·%.

The effects of hydrogen on dynamic fracture toughness of high-strength low-carbon medium manganese steel

The effect of retained austenite (RA) stability and dislocation density of martensite matrix on low-temperature dynamic fracture toughness and the hydrogen embrittlement (HE) susceptibility was investigated in a high-strength low-carbon medium manganese steel subjected to three different heat treatments, i.e., the inter-critical annealing at 630 °C (QHA), inter-critical annealing at 610 °C (QLA), and direct quenching (DQ). Dynamic cracked three-point bending tests were performed at 20 °C and −40 °C with and without hydrogen charging. The RA volume fraction and the martensite matrix's dislocation density significantly affected the dynamic fracture toughness and HE behavior. All QHA and QLA tested at 20 °C fractured in the ductile mode, but all DQ and QLA tested at −40 °C fractured in the brittle mode. Dynamic fracture toughness decreases with RA volume fraction under the same tested temperature. The HE mechanism in the ductile region is HELP, and that in the brittle region is HEDE.

Effect of retained austenite on the fracture behavior of a novel press-hardened steel

• Effect of RA on both the tensile and bending properties of the PHS has been studied. • RA with various mechanical stabilities and volume fraction are obtained via tuning the degree of auto-tempering of martensite during die quenching. • The tensile performance is improved with increasing of volume fractions of RA in the novel PHS. • The mechanical stability, rather than volume fraction of RA, has significant impact on the bendability of the PHS. Tensile and bending properties are two critical attributes of press hardened steels (PHSs) for automotive body structural components. However, the research on these properties of PHSs with retained austenite (RA), which is introduced to improve the mechanical properties, has not been well reported. In this study, the effect of RA on the quasi-static uniaxial tensile and three-point bending behaviors has been systematically investigated for a newly developed Cr and Si alloyed PHS. RA with various degrees of mechanical stabilities was obtained by tuning the auto-tempering of martensite through the control of the die contact pressure during the press hardening process. Mechanically stable RA provides the optimal combination of tensile and bending performance, while the PHS with RA of poor mechanical stability has a deteriorated bending toughness as manifested by a reduction of bending angle from approximately 61.6° to 56.8°. However, its tensile properties, in contrast, are the best in terms of the product of ultimate tensile strength and total elongation (15.9 GPa %). This is mainly attributed to the unstable RA on the outermost surface of the bending sample. The unstable RA can easily transform into brittle martensite under local plane strain and strain gradient conditions in the bending test compared with uniaxial stress in the tensile test, promoting crack initiation and propagation. Furthermore, the effect of martensitic auto-tempering or contact pressure on the quantity and stability of RA are also discussed. This study would provide a useful reference to guide hot stamping process optimization for the newly developed Cr and Si-containing press-hardened steel.

A combined 3D-atomic/nanoscale comprehension and ab initio computation of iron carbide structures tailored in Q&P steels via Si alloying.

The essences of the quenching and partitioning (Q&P) process are to stabilize the finely divided retained austenite (RA) via carbon (C) partitioning from supersaturated martensite during partitioning. Competitive reactions, i.e., transition carbide precipitation, C segregation, and decomposition of austenite, might take place concurrently during partitioning. In order to maintain the high volume fraction of RA, it is crucial to suppress the carbide precipitation sufficiently. Since silicon (Si) in the cementite θ (Fe3C) is insoluble, alloying Si in adequate concentrations prolongs its precipitation during the partitioning step. Consequently, C partitioning facilitates the desired chemical stabilization of RA. To elucidate the mechanisms of formation of transition η (Fe2C) carbides as well as cementite, θ (Fe3C), besides the transformation of transition carbides to more stable θ during the quenching and partitioning (Q&P) process, samples of 0.4 wt% C steels tailored with different Si contents were extensively characterized for microstructural evolution at different partitioning temperatures (TP) using high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM) and three-dimensional atom probe tomography (3D-APT). While 1.5 wt% Si in the steel allowed only the formation of η carbides even at a high TP of 300 °C, reduction in Si content to 0.75 wt% only partially stabilized η carbides, allowing limited η → θ transformation. With 0.25 wt% Si, only θ was present in the microstructure, suggesting a η → θ transition during the early partitioning stage, followed by coarsening due to enhanced growth kinetics at 300 °C. Although η carbides precipitated in martensite under paraequilibrium conditions at 200 °C, θ carbides precipitated under negligible partitioning local equilibrium conditions at 300 °C. Competition with the formation of orthorhombic η and θ precipitation further examined via ab initio (density functional theory, DFT) computation and a similar probability of formation/thermodynamic stability were obtained. With an increase in Si concentration, the cohesive energy decreased when Si atoms occupied C positions, indicating decreasing stability. Overall, the thermodynamic prediction was in accord with the HR-TEM and 3D-APT results.

Description of a new concept for the development of adapted hot-work tool steels for laser-powder bed fusion

This work presents a new approach for developing carbon-martensitic hardenable hot work tool steel, which can be processed to defect-free components by laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF). The alloy approach is based on low transition temperature steels (LTT), which are characterized by a low martensite start temperature at which the austenite transforms into martensite. With this transformation, a volume expansion occurs, which causes a reduction in the tensile residual stresses previously formed in the austenite phase during cooling. At the same time, low martensite start temperature counteracts the further formation of high residual stresses as the material continues to cool down to room temperature. A modified Schaeffler diagram was used to find an appropriate alloy composition as starting point for alloy development. This diagram was adapted to the L-PBF process by laser-remelting the surfaces of cast specimens with different Ni- and Cr-equivalents. The resulting retained austenite content and the associated residual stresses of the remelted surfaces were determined using x-ray diffraction. Knowing the interaction between the chemical composition, the retained austenite volume fraction, the martensite start temperature, and the residual stress state, an optimal alloy window for L-PBF-processable hot work tool steels could be determined with the help of the adjusted Schaeffler diagram. Finally, a suitable commercially available alloy X38CrMo7–2 was adapted that can be processed using L-PBF without preheating of the build platform. The microstructure and the properties associated (hardness, strength) of the L-PBF-processed and heat-treated steel X38CrMo7–2 were compared with the frequently used tool steel X40CrMoV5–1 (L-PBF-processed with preheating of the build platform of 300 °C).

A new morphology of retained austenite obtained by intercritical tempering of 13Cr-4Ni martensitic stainless steel

This research investigates the effect of various intercritical tempering in a 13Cr-4Ni stainless steel on the morphology, size, and γ-stabilizer elements enrichment of the retained austenite, i.e. the austenite retained at room temperature after intercritical heat treatments. A comparative microstructural and chemical composition study was conducted on AISI415 steel using scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and micro hardness measurements for three tempering conditions giving the same retained austenite volume fraction (10%). These tempering conditions were: 620 °C 1 h, 600 °C 4 h, and 580 °C 10 h. The intercritical tempering at low temperature does not provide greater γ-stabilizer elements enrichment of the austenite. In this condition, the morphology of the formed retained austenite can be described as thin hollow particles with short lamellae shapes, which is significantly different than the morphology obtained at higher temperatures; the latter being characterised by thick and long lamellae. The retained austenite produced by tempering at low temperature is surrounded from both internal and external sides by martensite phases. Furthermore, it increases the austenite-martensite interfacial area that contributes to increase the barrier energy to martensitic transformation induced plasticity (TRIP).

Alternative Approach for the Intercritical Annealing of (Cr, Mo, V)-Alloyed TRIP-Assisted Steel before Austempering

TRIP-assisted C-Si-Mn steels are usually subjected to austempering with a preliminary intercritical annealing that is targeted at the multi-phase structure with 40–60 vol.% of proeutectoid ferrite. The kinetics and the mechanism of phase-structural transformations can be impacted due to the additional alloying of TRIP-assisted steel by the strong carbide forming elements, thus necessitating an alternative approach for the selection of intercritical annealing parameters. This issue is analyzed in the present work, which investigates the effect of the temperature of intercritical annealing on the “Structure/Properties” correlations in 0.2 wt.% C-Si-Mn-Nb steel additionally alloyed by 0.55 wt.% Cr, 0.20% Mo, and 0.11 wt.% V. The annealing temperature ranged from 770 °C to 950 °C, and austempering was performed at 350 °C for 20 min. It was observed that the addition of the (Cr, Mo, and V) complex significantly improved the steel hardenability. However, the annealing of steel at 770 °C (to gain 50 vol.% of proeutectoid ferrite) resulted in the precipitation of coarse cementite lamellas during bainite transformation, thus lowering the amount of retained austenite (RA) and decreasing the strength and ductility of the steel. At higher annealing temperatures, carbide-free bainite was formed, which presented a 2.5–3.5 times increase in the RA volume fraction and a 1.5 times increase in the RA carbon content. The optimal combination of the mechanical properties (UTS of 1040 MPa, TEL of 23%, V-notch impact toughness of 95 J/cm2, PSE of 23.9 GPa·%) referred to annealing at a temperature close to the Ac3 point, resulting in a structure with 5 vol.% ferrite and 9 vol.% RA (the residue was carbide-free bainite). This structure presented an extended manifestation of the TRIP effect with an enhanced strain hardening rate due to strain-induced martensite transformation. The impact of the alloying elements on the carbon activity in austenite served as the basis for the analysis of structure formation.

Experimental and Modeling Study of Phase-Specific Flow Stress Distribution in Intercritically Annealed Quenching and Partitioning Steels

To meet the increasing demand and stringent requirements of automotive structural steels, intercritically annealed quenching and partitioning (QP) steels are attracting significant attention owing to their excellent strength–plasticity balance. However, to date, limited reports have focused on the correlation between the microstructure and strength of intercritically annealed QP. In this study, the mechanical behaviors of QP steels with different Si contents were investigated by developing a physical-based mechanical model based on microstructural characterizations. In situ neutron diffraction was used to analyze the evolution of the phase constitution. Si content influenced the phase transformation behavior of the test steel. In the early stages of deformation, Si-strengthened steel exhibited lower retained austenite (RA) stability and faster transformation kinetics. The variation in the RA volume fraction with the deformation was fitted using a segmented exponential function. Based on the microstructure and strengthening mechanisms, a mechanical model considering grain refinement during phase transformation was proposed. The model was validated using intercritically annealed QP steels with different Si contents. The transformation-induced plasticity effect, that is, the contribution of RA to the strength, was discussed from two perspectives. Deformation-induced martensite (DIM) exhibited a significant work-hardening rate owing to the high solid solution strengthening by carbon and the high dislocation density. The residual RA after the DIM transformation exhibited a non-negligible stress distribution. Particularly, the grain boundary density and dislocations increased with strain, strengthening the remaining RA.

Effect of monotonic mechanical properties on the low-cycle fatigue lifetime of carbide-free bainitic steels

The influence of monotonic mechanical properties on the low-cycle fatigue (LCF) lifetime of carbide-free bainitic steel is systematically investigated. The tensile mechanical properties, LCF, and microstructure of carbide-free bainitic steel with strength grades from 1200 MPa to 1700 MPa are tested. The results show that an increase in dislocation density and a decrease in bainitic ferrite lath size lead to an increase in tensile strength, and a decrease in retained austenite volume fraction leads to a decrease in elongation. Due to the mechanical stability of retained austenite, the influence of microstructure parameters on fatigue lifetime is not proportional. The increase of dislocation density and the decrease of bainitic ferrite lath size lead to a much larger increase of fatigue lifetime than the decrease of retained austenite volume fraction. Using a damage-hysteresis energy method, the fatigue lifetime could be modeled to show its dependency on the tensile strength and elongation. Increasing tensile strength and elongation is beneficial to increasing fatigue lifetime. The increase of fatigue lifetime caused by the increase of strength is larger than the decrease of fatigue lifetime caused by the decrease of elongation. The mathematical analysis of fatigue lifetime in terms of tensile strength, elongation and static toughness can effectively predict the variation of the LCF lifetime for different grades of bainitic steels.

Influence of friction-induced retained austenite transformation to martensite on the wear properties of a carburized layer of 23CrNi3MoA steel

This paper investigates the effect of the friction-induced retained austenite (RA) transformation to martensite on the surface wear performance of steel. 23CrNi3MoA steel was subjected to different carburizing processes to explore the effects of the RA volume fraction, carbon content and size on the stability of the metal. The results show that RA size is the key to controlling the mechanical stability of austenite in friction experiments. When the RA content is 20%–30%, the RA is small and has a uniform distribution and high mechanical stability. A small amount of friction-induced martensite is present in nanosheet form, and the particle size of the wear-stripped martensite is small, thereby reducing the amount of wear. When the content of RA is 30%–50%, the size of the RA is coarse, its distribution is uneven, the mechanical stability of the steel is low, the size of the exfoliated particles is coarse, and the wear performance of the steel is reduced. Through microstructural characterization of the worn surface, subsurface and matrix, it was found that cracks formed at the interface of the transformation induced martensite and the RA of the matrix during wear and penetrated the entire transformation induced martensite along the longitudinal direction of the interface. The bulk layer even extends into the deep matrix, thus eventually forming large exfoliations. The wear mechanism of RA during dry sliding friction is clarified, and a basis for the reasonable control of RA during production is provided.