Retail Selling Research Articles

Online Retailing Operations: Is It Wise to Offer Free Sample Trial and Money-Back Guarantee Together?

In retail operations, free sample trial (FST) and product return with money-back guarantee (MBG) both serve as important strategies to reduce consumers’ worries and valuation uncertainty. This paper is the first study which analytically examines when and whether an online retailer should provide both strategies simultaneously, and when one strategy outperforms the other. We consider an online retailer selling to consumers who are uncertain about the product values when making purchasing decisions. The retailer decides whether to offer MBG or FST. We develop analytical models to examine four strategies: strategy NN (both FST and MBG are not provided), strategy NS (FST is provided and MBG is not offered), strategy MN (FST is not provided and MBG is provided), and strategy MS (both FST and MBG are offered). Comparing among these four strategies, we find that when only FST is offered, the retailer surprisingly should decrease the price if the product cost is low. If the retailer only provides MBG, he will charge a higher price compared with the situation when MBG is not provided. When the size of free sample is very small, strategy NS (MS) is the optimal strategy if the product's cost is low (high). When the size of free sample is large, strategy MN is the optimal strategy. Then, we extend our model to consider three situations, namely: (a) the retailer offers coupons to consumers to experience the free sample, (b) consumer returns incur a cost, and (c) the size of free sample is endogenous. We find the main conclusion remains robust. Our findings may help explain some real-world practices, such as why some retailers (e.g., Amazon and Walmart) provide consumers with low volume toners to decrease the free sample cost; skincare product retailers such as Lancôme, Estee Lauder, and Guerlain implement both MBG and FST. We also interestingly show that a bigger size of free sample may not necessarily benefit consumers.

Frequency, serotyping, antibiogram, and seasonality of Salmonella isolated from red meat markets.

Bacterial pathogenic strains are as adaptable as Salmonella strains and cause diverse intestinal and extraintestinal diseases in humans and other mammals worldwide. Red meat and its products are important hosts for many zoonotic diseases. This work was designed to investigate the frequency, serotypes, and antimicrobial resistance profile of isolated Salmonella spp. in red meat (cattle, sheep, and goats) sold in Dhamar Governorate, Yemen. A total of 250 red meat samples were collected from the retail seller market between July and December 2022. All samples were transported immediately to the laboratory, subcultured on selective enrichment agar, and identified by serotyping and antimicrobial susceptibility tests via disk diffusion methods. The results indicated 26 positive samples of Salmonella out of the 250 samples (10.4%). Notably, isolates belong to ten various serotypes: S. Typhimurium 19.2%, S. Anatum 15.4%, S. Newport 11.5%, S. Enteritidis 11.5%, S. Muenchen 11.5%, S. Infantis 7.7%, S. Montevideo 7.7%, S. Dublin 7.7%, S. Senftenberg 3.9%, and S. Arizona 3.9%. The antibiotic resistance profile revealed that 57.5%, 53.9%, and 53.9% of isolates are resistant to erythromycin, tetracycline, and norfloxacin, respectively. This resistance among Salmonella spp. suggests a significant threat to health, which will in turn require an active safety measure and response. On the other hand, the seasonal variations "August and July" were found to be associated with an increased frequency of Salmonella isolation.

Prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of major foodborne pathogens isolated from pangas and tilapia fish sold in retail markets of Dhaka city, Bangladesh

Fish sold at retail markets are often contaminated with harmful bacterial pathogens, posing significant health risks. Despite the growing aquaculture industry in Bangladesh to meet high demand, little attention has been paid to ensuring the safety of fish. The objective of this study was to evaluate the microbiological quality of tilapia and pangas fish sold in retail markets across Dhaka city, Bangladesh. Specifically, the study aimed to compare the quality of fish from traditional wet markets and modern supermarkets, as well as fish samples collected during morning and evening hours. A total of 500 raw cut-fish samples (250 tilapia and 250 pangas) were collected at the point of sale from 32 wet markets and 25 supermarkets. All samples were tested for Escherichia coli, extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing E. coli (ESBL-Ec), along with the foodborne pathogens Salmonella, Shigella, Vibrio, and Cryptosporidium spp. Bacterial isolates were characterized using antibiotic susceptibility tests (AST) and the presence of common virulence and antibiotic-resistant genes. Fish samples from retail markets had higher prevalence of tested bacteria including E. coli (92 %), V. cholerae (62 %), ESBL-Ec (48 %), and Salmonella spp. (24 %). There was a significant difference in the prevalence of E. coli (97 % vs. 71 %), ESBL-Ec (58 % vs. 8 %) and Salmonella spp. (28 % vs. 8 %) on the wet market samples compared to supermarket samples (p < 0.005). The mean concentration of E. coli on fish from the wet market was 3.0 ± 0.9 log10 CFU/g, while that from supermarkets was 1.6 ± 0.9 log10 CFU/g. The mean concentration of ESBL-Ec in fish from wet markets and supermarkets were 2.3 ± 0.8 log10 CFU/g and 1.6 ± 0.5 log10 CFU/g, respectively. AST revealed that 46 % of E. coli isolates were multi-drug resistant (MDR), while 4 %, 2 % and 5 % of E. coli, Salmonella spp. and Vibrio spp. isolates, respectively, were resistant to carbapenems. At least 3 % of total E. coli isolates were found to be diarrheagenic, while 40 % of Salmonella isolates harbored pathogenic genes (stn, bcfC, ssaQ, avrA and sodC1), and none of the V. cholerae isolates harbored ctxA and tcpA. Our research shows that raw-cut fish samples from retail markets are contaminated with pathogenic and antibiotic-resistant bacteria, which could be a significant food safety concern. Public health interventions should be implemented to improve food safety and hygiene practices in the retail fish markets.

Supplier encroachment and pricing scheme choice in a supply chain with two-sided uncertainties

ABSTRACT This paper examines supplier encroachment in a scenario where the supplier procures an input in spot and processes it into a final product, while the retailer chooses between contingent and committed pricing schemes for the contract price. We find that when the correlation between the input spot price and final product demand is relatively small, it is optimal for the retailer to adopt the contingent pricing scheme regardless of the supplier's encroachment decision. This is because this scheme enables the supplier to share the input price risk, resulting in a lower contract price. Furthermore, the likelihood of the retailer adopting the contingent pricing scheme increases as demand variability decreases or spot price volatility increases. However, supplier encroachment reduces the retailer's inclination to use the contingent pricing scheme. We further demonstrate that the supplier should encroach when the correlation is sufficiently small, because encroachment alleviates double marginalisation in the retail channel and brings the additional responsiveness in the direct channel. By contrast, a large correlation compels the supplier to encroach even with a sufficiently small market size. In this case, encroachment improves the responsiveness of both retail and direct selling quantities and enables the quantities to match the demand better.

Empirical Evidence on the Effects of Wayfair on Brick and Mortar Stores: The Case of South Dakota

Employing very specific data for South Dakota, this study shows that the requirement of collecting a sales tax by remote sellers gave rise to a 6.99% sales increase for brick-and-mortar retail sellers from 2018 through 2022. For this period there was also an approximate 4.54% increase in employment for brick-and-mortar employers. Larger operations, and those parts of a chain, experienced even higher post sales-tax growth. There was a significant amount of net moves out of the state post-2017, but employment losses for such moves were lower for brick-and-mortar retailers.

Simultaneous consideration of consumer preferences and seller revenue as a smart retail sales and management strategy

PurposeThe authors propose a dairy bundle, integrating strategies to jointly maximise producer revenue and consumer utility according to the latter's preferences.Design/methodology/approachAn algorithm based on a nested logit model identifies the bundle maximising producer revenue based on factors affecting consumer purchase behaviour. The data are drawn from a mall-intercept survey administered in Iran, with consumers stating a hypothetical choice among a comprehensive set of dairy products.FindingsDemographic characteristics and marketing mix elements significantly affect consumers' preferences. An algorithm based on the estimated dissimilarity parameter determines the best bundle of dairy products, simultaneously obtaining the highest utility and the highest expected revenue.Originality/valueConsumer preference and maximum producer or retail seller income are considered simultaneously. The bundling promotion strategy is widely used for food offerings and fresh foods and can be extended to other products.

Exploring the association between the proximity to and density around schools of retailers selling IQOS products and youth use of heated tobacco products: evidence from the 2020-2021 COMPASS study.

Heated tobacco products (HTPs) are novel tobacco products that may appeal to youth. This study explored whether HTP retailer proximity and density to secondary schools were associated with youth use of HTPs in four Canadian provinces. An online search between November 2020 and March 2021 identified retailers selling IQOS devices and HEETS (tobacco sticks used in IQOS) within 500 m, 1000 m and 1500 m radius circular buffer zones around high schools (N = 120) participating in the COMPASS study in 2020-2021. Retailer proximity/density data were linked to crosssectional student-level data (N = 40 636 students), and multilevel regression models examined the association between HTP retailer proximity and density and current HTP use, controlling for relevant covariates. While only 10.0% of schools had at least one retailer selling IQOS devices within 1000 m of the school, 65.0% of schools had at least one retailer selling HEETS. The school a student attended accounted for 23.7% of the variability in the likelihood of currently using an HTP. However, HTP retailer proximity to and density around schools were not significantly associated with the likelihood of students currently using HTPs. While the school a student attended accounted for a significant amount of variability in HTP use, these findings suggest that students may be obtaining HTPs through other, non-retail sources. Continued monitoring is warranted as HTP use among youth may change.

Optimal strategies for green investment, sharing contract and advertisement effort in a supply chain coordination problem

The global environment is experiencing increasingly rapid pollution due to the presence of harmful products generated by human activities, the emissions from vehicular traffic, and the release of carbon dioxide from industrial sources. To save this beautiful earth as well as human beings, it is necessary to reduce pollution by producing eco-friendly products and reducing reckless carbon emissions from industry. Furthermore, advertising serves as a very efficacious strategy for promoting sustainable green products and encouraging customer engagement. In response to the current circumstances, a supply chain model including a manufacturer, a retailer, and customers is devised, incorporating investments in green practices and advertising. This study examines the relationship between client demand and three key factors: marketing effort, the product's green level, and the selling price. In addition, a sharing contract policy between the manufacturer and the retailer on green investment costs is applied in this model. The main focus of this study is to find the optimal values of advertisement effort, the product's green level, the manufacturer's wholesale price, the retailer's selling price and the sharing percentage of green investment that maximize the profits of the retailer and manufacturer, as well as the integrated supply chain system of the proposed model. In order to demonstrate the practical significance of the concept, a numerical example is solved and then a comparative analysis is conducted. Moreover, sensitivity studies are performed to assess the impact of different model parameters on decision factors and profitability. In conclusion, this study provides management insights and offers some closing observations, along with suggestions for future research directions. The findings indicate that the implementation of a sharing contract policy yields more earnings to the participants in the supply chain compared to a decentralized situation. The centralized strategy in supply chain management (SCM) results in higher joint earnings for the manufacturer and the retailer compared to the decentralized and sharing contract policies.

The Role of Excise Tax Rates, Selling Prices, and Economic Indicators on Cigarette Consumption

High cigarette consumption not only hurts public health but also indirectly affects the economy of the country. The high selling prices currently in effect do not force low-income families’ people to reduce their consumption levels daily. Therefore, this study examines the overall role of excise tariffs, retail selling prices, poverty level, and income on the consumption pattern of cigarettes in Kediri during 2018-2022 both simultaneously and partially. It used the quantitative, method with secondary data in the form of data obtained from the National Statistic Agency, East Jawa Provincial Statistic Agency, and data from government agencies, KPPBC TMC Kediri for the period.

Virulence genes (stx1/stx2/aea) and O serogroups of Escherichia coli strains isolated from the slaughtered cattle and ground meat sold in retail markets in Dakar, Senegal

Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) is a zoonotic pathogen that is involved in foodborne diseases worldwide. In Africa STEC is a concern for food safety, with increasing epidemiological significance. However, data are scarce in countries of sub-Saharan Africa, and particularly in Senegal. The aim of this study was to estimate STEC prevalence and to characterize serogroups and virulence factors in cattle carcasses at slaughterhouse and ground meat sold in retail markets. In total, 298 samples were collected from cattle carcasses (n = 199) and ground meat samples (n = 99). All samples were screened by multiplex PCR for the presence of shiga toxin-encoding genes and intimin. STEC strains (n = 21) identified were characterized for the presence of serogroups, by using agglutination method with specific antisera. The prevalence rates recorded in carcass samples and ground meat were 3.15% and 3.27%, respectively. The O serogroups including O26, O111 and O145 were detected. Among the cattle carcass samples, 1.47% (n = 7) and 2% (n = 8) of the strains carried stx1-stx2 and eae, respectively. Regarding ground meat samples, 2.18% (n = 4) and 1.1% (n = 2) carried stx1-stx2 and eae, respectively. No strain carrying stx/eae association or stx alone was detected in this study. The outcomes of the study shows the need to improve the processing of cattle at slaughterhouses and ground meat, but also to implement routine surveillance of food-borne pathogens throughout the food chain.

Omni-channel inventory management of perishable products under transshipment and substitution

We consider a retailer selling two substitutable products through an offline and online channel. The products are stored at separate inventory locations and transshipments from the offline channel to online customers are possible, i.e. we propose a two-location inventory model incorporating customer-driven inventory interactions (demand substitution initiated by the customer) and retailer-driven inventory interactions (transshipment, i.e. demand substitution initiated by the retailer). We compare this model to a system incorporating customer-driven substitution only and use empirical data about customers’ preferences and perceptions of grocery shopping in online and offline channels to understand the trade-offs between various substitution forms in omni-channel retailing. In a numerical study, we discuss the optimal order quantities and resulting expected profits and quantify the value of a retailer-driven transshipment strategy. Although the empirical results reveal that online demands are relatively low and product substitution rates are particularly high, our results confirm that a transshipment system can achieve higher expected profits than when considering customer substitution only. Finally, we discuss the performance of policies that ignore product and/or channel substitution. We find that having complete information about product substitution is crucial for a grocery retailer’s omni-channel order quantity decision.

Implementation of Retail Selling Price Tariff Policy in Order to Increase Cigarette Excise Revenue at Kppbc Pasar Baru North Jakarta in 2022

This research aims to analyze the implementation of the Retail Selling Price Tariff Policy in Increasing Excise Revenues and to determine the obstacles and efforts made to overcome the obstacles faced in implementing the Retail Selling Price Tariff Policy. The research was conducted at KPPBC TMP C Pasar Baru, North Jakarta using a qualitative approach and the data obtained was the result of interviews with informants and documentation. The results of the research can be concluded that the Implementation of the Retail Selling Price Tariff Policy has been running optimally in increasing excise revenue, which can be proven by the large value of Realization of Excise Revenue in the Implementation of the Retail Selling Price Tariff Policy. In its implementation, there are obstacles faced in the form of technical obstacles from internal and external parties. To overcome the obstacles that occur, preventative efforts are made by providing information and direction to Taxpayers and the Public to fulfill and comply with the provisions that have been given to minimize misunderstanding of the objectives of the Tariff Policy in its implementation.

Designing a two-stage model for the resilient agri-food supply chain network under dynamic competition

PurposeSupply chain risk management can effectively reduce the loss of retailers. In this regard, retailers need to consider the competition risks of competitors in addition to the disruption risks. This paper designs a resilient retail supply chain network for perishable foods under the dynamic competition to maximize retailer's profits.Design/methodology/approachA two-stage mixed-integer non-linear model is presented for designing the supply chain network. In the first stage, an equilibrium model that considers the characteristics of perishable foods is developed. In the second stage, a mixed integer non-linear programming model is presented to deal with the strategic decisions. Finally, an efficient memetic algorithm is designed to deal with large-scale problems.FindingsThe optimal the selection of suppliers, distribution centers and the order allocation are found among the supply chain entities. Considering the perishability of agri-food products, the equilibrium retail price and selling quantity are determined. Through a numerical example, the optimal inventory period under different maximum shelf life and the impact of three resilient strategies on retailer's profit, selling price and selling quantity are analyzed.Research limitations/implicationsAs for future research, the research can be extended in a number of directions. First, this paper studies the retail supply chain network design problem under competition among retailers. It can be an interesting direction to consider retailers competing with suppliers. Second, the authors can try to linearize the non-linear model and solve the large-scale integer programming problem by exact algorithm. Finally, the freshness of perishable foods gradually declines linearly to zero as the maximum shelf life approaches, and it would be a meaningful attempt to consider the freshness of perishable foods declines exponentially.Originality/valueThis paper innovatively designs the resilient supply chain network for perishable foods under dynamic competition. The retailer's dynamic competition and resilient strategies are considered simultaneously when designing supply chain network for perishable foods. In addition, this paper gives insights into how to obtain the optimal inventory period and compare the retailer's resilient strategies.

Enhancing Customer Engagement on the Companies' Facebook Pages in the Fuel Retail Sector

Social networks change the way how companies conduct their marketing activities. Potential customers become part of companies' marketing activities instead of just being passive participants. The ability to actively involve customers thus becomes a critical factor in the success of marketing activities. The study aims to determine how the posts' different content on the companies' Facebook pages affects the engagement of the message recipients. A retrospective, longitudinal study approach was used. Five hundred fifty-three posts from the four Slovak largest fuel retail sellers' Facebook pages were analyzed. The results revealed the significant difference in the medians of the passive engagement (χ2 (3, N = 533) = 85.685, p-value = &lt; 0.0001) and active engagement (χ2 (3, N = 533) = 85.685, p-value = &lt; 0.0001) according to different content types. The paired rank differences suggest that while entertainment messages (EM) significantly encourage both types of engagement (passive and active), informational messages (IM) and social messages (SM) encourage mainly passive engagement. The study extends the research on active and passive customer engagement, and thus, it contributes directly to understanding engagement and customer experience with social media and expands the knowledge about the Facebook content strategy. Finally, it offers recommendations for future research in the examined area.

A Web-based Group Decision Support System for Retail Product Sales a Case Study on Padang, Indonesia

The industrial sector's growth has led to an increase in the number of industrial products available in the market. However, this has made it more challenging for retail merchants to choose which items to sell due to the overwhelming number of options. The seller must carefully consider various factors such as the type, quality, and probability of selling the goods to turn a profit. This research proposes a group decision support system to assist retail sellers in selecting the products to sell. The system is designed to process various information on comparing retail products against specific criteria, enabling sellers to make quick and accurate decisions. To achieve optimal results, this study combines three methods in the decision-making calculation process: Fuzzy Logic, EDAS, and Borda methods. The Fuzzy Logic method is used to assign a value to an unclear criterion, followed by the EDAS method ranking process, and ending with the combination of the decision-making results using the Borda method. The group decision support system is web-based and has been proven to provide effective solutions for retail business actors to increase sales and reduce losses. By using this system, retail sellers can make informed decisions about their products, enabling them to optimize their profits and reduce their risks. In conclusion, the increase in the number of industrial products has created challenges for retail merchants, but this research proposes a solution in the form of a group decision support system. Combining Fuzzy Logic, EDAS, and Borda methods results in an effective decision-making process that allows retail sellers to make informed decisions and achieve their business goals.

Optimal pricing strategy for new products considering reference price effect in advance selling

Previous research has shown that retailers’ operations and consumers’ purchase choices are significantly influenced by reference prices. This study explores a retailer selling some new products to strategic consumers in advance selling, and addresses the impact of reference price effect on the advance selling strategy and corresponding pricing decisions. Consumers’ choices are determined by their purchasing utilities which are dependent on the selling price in current period and the reference price. We first drive optimal selling prices and corresponding profits of the retailer under the scenarios of no advance selling, advance selling without considering the reference price effect, and advance selling with considering the reference price effect, respectively. We find an advance selling strategy is not always beneficial for the retailer. Besides, results present that the retailer benefits from considering reference price effects only if the positive reference effect is relatively high. Finally, numerical studies show that dynamic pricing is dominated by price commitment, which reaches the maximum when positive and negative reference effects parameters are both the highest.

ETHICAL ELEGANCE TO TIMELESS TREASURES: DECODING THE ALLURE OF MODERN JEWELLERY TRENDS &amp; TOP BRANDED SELLERS AMONG TODAY'S FASHION FORWARD WORKING WOMEN

India is getting more modern as portrayed in its big banners by one of leading multi-brand retail seller, ‘Big Bazaar’. Jewellery market is not an exception to this trend of getting more trendy and awesome. Indian working women wearing western outfits are lured towards light weight branded jewellery which suits the attire, enhancing overall look and beauty. Fashion brands like Mia by Tanishq, ORRA, Goenka India, Amrapali are renowned globally for their antique, glittering unique piece of designs. This is an attempt to overview the ever growing gold industry with changing demands and market needs considering working fashion-forward women in cities of India.

Detection and mitigation of antibiotic residues in poultry products and byproducts

Majority of the people in Bangladesh are still not aware about the health hazards of antibiotic residues. In this research, farmer’s awareness has been investigated by a questionnaire in different poultry farms, retail sellers and poultry markets and spread out the knowledge of public health hazards of antibiotics residues. Poultry farmers were found well educated about health hazards of antibiotic residues and aware about the judicial use of antibiotics before selling the poultry for human consumptions. During this survey, sufficient samples (thigh muscle, breast muscle, liver etc., n=100) were collected from different poultry farms, retail sellers and poultry markets. Randomly 50 livers, 50 thigh muscle and 50 breast muscle samples respectively were evaluated by TLC analysis. Out of 50 samples for each 2 liver, 2 breast muscle and 2 thigh muscle samples were found positive for Amoxicillin antibiotic; 5 liver, 3 breast muscle and 3 thigh muscle samples were found positive for Ciprofloxacin; 3 liver, 3 breast muscle and 3 thigh muscle samples were found positive for Cefalexin; 2 liver, 2 breast muscle and 2 thigh muscle samples were found positive for Enrofloxacin; 4 liver, 2 breast muscle and 2 thigh muscle samples were found positive for Oxytetracycline. Gentamicin and Neomycin were found negative for any samples. Further investigation was done in indoor discriminate and indiscriminate use of antibiotics (Cefalexin) in broilers. Indoor experiment was investigated in poultry chicks. Day old chicks were collected and reared up to 30 days. On day 14th, the chicks were randomly divided into three groups namely control group (n=10), discriminate antibiotic group (n=10) and indiscriminate antibiotic group (n=10). Discriminate antibiotic group was treated with antibiotics (Cefalexin) for one week followed by withdrawal period for one week, whereas; indiscriminate antibiotic group was treated with antibiotic (Cefalexin) for two weeks until the day of sacrifice. Liver, thigh muscle and breast muscle samples were collected and evaluated by TLC method. Control and discriminate antibiotics birds were found negative for any antibiotics residues. On the other hand, ten liver samples, eight thigh muscles and eight breast muscles were found positive for Cefalexin in indiscriminate group. Indiscriminate uses of antibiotic indicated that antibiotic residue mitigation for human safe meat production depends on withdrawal period and farmers awareness. Therefore, poultry treated with antibiotics are required for specific withdrawal period until all residues are depleted to safe levels before human consumption. Asian Australas. J. Food Saf. Secur. 2023, 7 (1), 33-39

On selling format choice and quality differentiation in dual‐channel supply chains

AbstractWhen suppliers sell products through a direct channel and an indirect channel, they usually differentiate the two channels by quality to alleviate channel conflicts. The quality choice for different channels poses a great challenge to the suppliers, which also bears implications for the online retailer's choice between the reselling format and the agency format. This paper uses a game‐theoretic model to investigate the interaction between the supplier's quality differentiation strategy and the online retailer's selling format choice in dual‐channel supply chains. Different from the previous literature, we endogenize the supplier's quality decisions and find that the supplier always chooses to sell the high‐quality product through the direct channel and sell the low‐quality product through the online retailer. Moreover, compared with the reselling format, the quality level of the low‐quality product is reduced but that of the high‐quality product is lightly increased under the agency format. The intuition is that the supplier tends to highlight the advantage of each channel to acquire more profit. Regardless of the supplier's choice, the online retailer always prefers the agency format. We further extend our model in several important directions, which lend robustness to our core insights.

The incentives for information sharing in online retail platforms

Compared with the traditional brick-and-mortar retail industry, e-commerce has numerous advantages in the collection of consumer demand information, and big data technology can help online platforms forecast accurate demand information from the collected data, which can then be used to improve business operations. To investigate the incentives for sharing the forecast information with or without platform encroachment, this paper establishes stylized analytical models in an e-commerce setting consisting of a manufacturer, an online platform and a third-party retailer (as a reseller). Depending on whether the online platform encroachment happens or not, we consider two different platform operation modes, namely, the mode without platform encroachment where only the third-party retailer sells products, and the mode with platform encroachment where both the online platform and the third-party retailer sell products. Our analysis shows that when the online platform does not encroach, it has no incentives to share forecast information with the manufacturer, but always has incentives to share forecast information with the third-party retailer. Interestingly, when the online platform encroaches, the online platform may share forecast information, depending on the level of substitutability between products and commission rate charged by it, either only with the third-party retailer, or with both the manufacturer and the third-party retailer, or with none of them.