Restrictive Housing Research Articles

Cores and mechanisms in restricted housing markets

We consider two variants of Shapley and Scarf’s (1974) housing market model in which agents’ rights to consume own endowments are restricted but their rights to exchange endowments are unrestricted. In each of the two models, we propose a core notion to characterize allocations that are immune to coalition blocking under such restricted rights. In each model we prove that the corresponding core can be found by a strategy-proof variant of the Top Trading Cycle mechanism. Our results generalize the classical result in the housing market model that the core can be found by the strategy-proof Top Trading Cycle mechanism.

Separate Roles for State and Trait Anxiety in the Formation of SHU Syndrome: Testing a Moderated Mediation Hypothesis

It has been proposed that state anxiety, aroused when an inmate is initially placed in restrictive housing, interacts with the sequestering Special Housing Unit (SHU) environment to overtax the individual's already limited coping resources, and promotes later emotional problems and psychological deterioration. This study tested a SHU syndrome hypothesis with a moderated mediation path analysis of 69 male inmates. Results revealed that group status (general population vs. restrictive housing) interacted with state anxiety to increase trait anxiety and ineffective coping, which then gave rise to higher staff ratings of psychological disturbance in inmates with no prior history of mental illness.

Views From the Inside: Insights About Restrictive Housing From Prison System Officials, Officers, and Staff

Restrictive housing substantially limits inmate movement and privileges. Proponents argue it creates safer prison systems, while opponents claim it does not and harms inmates. However, few studies have systematically examined restrictive housing through the perspective of those who work in prison systems or scrutinized the diverse dimensions relevant to its appraisal. This study addresses this gap by drawing on qualitative data to examine how such individuals view the housing, its operational challenges, effectiveness, possible improvements, and potential alternatives. We present findings along each of these dimensions and then discuss their implications for research and policy.

Effect of Clozapine on Time Assigned to Restrictive Housing in a State Prison Population.

This study examined the effect of clozapine on time assigned to restrictive housing (RH; i.e., solitary confinement), disciplinary infractions, and assaults on custody staff among patients treated within the North Carolina prison system. Records were reviewed for patients initiated on clozapine (n = 84) over a 3.5-year period. Fifty-nine patients completed at least three consecutive months of treatment and were included in data analysis. Assigned RH days and disciplinary infractions were assessed for the periods prior to and after treatment with clozapine. Patients accumulated 13,500 RH days pretreatment and 3,560 days postclozapine initiation. There was a significant reduction in RH days with clozapine treatment (P < .05). Patients with personality disorders (n = 36) had a significant decrease in RH days (P < .05), while those with psychotic disorders (n = 23) showed a decrease with borderline significance (P = .051). There were 253 disciplinary infractions pretreatment, including 27 assaults on custody staff, and 118 infractions posttreatment, including 7 assaults; the decrease in infractions was significant in the first three months of treatment (P < .05). The mean ± SD duration of treatment was 269 ± 102 days. Expanding clozapine use in state prisons should be a high priority, as these data are consistent with reports of clozapine's benefits in community settings.

Supplemental Material for Mental Health Services in Restricted Housing: Do We Know What’s Going on Behind the Steel Doors?

Supplemental Material for Mental Health Services in Restricted Housing: Do We Know What’s Going on Behind the Steel Doors?

Restrictive Housing in Juvenile Correctional Settings.

The American Academy of Pediatrics has endorsed the following publication: National Commission on Correctional Health Care. Position Statement: Restrictive Housing in Juvenile Correctional Settings. Chicago, IL: National Commission on Correctional Health Care; 2021. Available at: https://www.ncchc.org/filebin/Positions/Restrictive-Housing-in-Juvenile-Correctional-Settings-2021.pdf.All statements of endorsement automatically expire 5 years after publication unless reaffirmed, revised, or retired at or before that time.

Stepping Up, Stepping Out: A program description and preliminary findings.

Research on the effects of restricted housing on inmate well-being indicates mild to moderate psychological effects and barriers opportunities for treatment and positive growth. Yet, there are few interventions tailored both to the needs of this high-risk population and to the institutional constraints of their environment. Given the financial and safety burdens associated with housing someone in segregation compared to the general population, correctional psychology should focus on developing programs that work. Using a prepost design, this study presents findings from a pilot investigation (N = 39) on the effects of a new, largely self-directed program (Stepping Up, Stepping Out [SUSO]) for inmates with mental and behavioral health concerns who are placed in restrictive settings. Results suggest that SUSO is associated with meaningful reductions in overall emotional distress and criminal attitudes; however, improvements in more stable criminal thinking patterns (i.e., distorted cognitions that are used to justify and support antisocial behavior; see Walters, 2012) were not observed. Overall, posttreatment working alliance was rated favorably by program participants. Demographic and preintervention comparisons between program completers and dropouts are also reported. Though preliminary findings suggest SUSO is a promising intervention for alleviating distress and aspects of criminal risk for inmates placed in restricted housing, future research should assess fidelity and engagement leading to a randomized controlled trial to determine the effectiveness of this program. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

\u201cWe just needed to open the door\u201d: a case study of the quest to end solitary confinement in North Dakota

Solitary confinement is a widespread practice in US correctional facilities. Long-standing concerns about the physical and mental health effects of solitary confinement have led to litigation, legislation, and community activism resulting in many prison systems introducing policies or implementing legal mandates to reduce or eliminate its use. Yet little is known about the nature and effectiveness of policies that states have adopted to reduce their use of solitary confinement and exactly how various reforms have actually impacted the lives of people living and working in the prisons where these reforms have taken place.MethodsWe conducted an embedded case study, analyzing changes in policies and procedures, administrative data, and focus groups and interviews with incarcerated persons and staff, to describe the circumstances that led to changes in solitary confinement policies and practices in the North Dakota Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation (ND DOCR) and the perceived impact of these changes on incarcerated persons and prison staff.ResultsNorth Dakota’s correctional officials and staff members attributed the impetus to change their solitary confinement policies to their participation in a program that directly exposed them to the Norwegian Correctional Service’s philosophy, policies, and practices in 2015. The ensuing policy changes made by North Dakota officials were swift and resulted in a 74.28% reduction in the use of solitary confinement between 2016 and 2020. Additionally, placements in any form of restrictive housing decreased markedly for incarcerated persons with serious mental illness. In the two prisons that had solitary confinement units, rule infractions involving violence decreased at one prison overall and it decreased within the units at both prisons that were previously used for solitary confinement. Although fights and assaults between incarcerated people increased in one of the prison’s general population units, during the initial months of reforms, these events continued to decline compared to years before reform. Moreover, incarcerated people and staff attributed the rise to a concomitant worsening of conditions in the general population due to overcrowding, idleness, and double bunking. Both incarcerated persons and staff members reported improvements in their health and well-being, enhanced interactions with one another, and less exposure to violence following the reforms.ConclusionsImmersing correctional leaders in the Norwegian Correctional Service’s public health and human rights principles motivated and guided the ND DOCR to pursue policy changes to decrease the use of solitary confinement in their prisons. Ensuing reductions in solitary confinement were experienced as beneficial to the health and wellness of incarcerated persons and staff alike. This case-study describes these policy changes and the perspectives of staff and incarcerated persons about the reforms that were undertaken. Findings have implications for stakeholders seeking to reduce their use of solitary confinement and limit its harmful consequences and underscore the need for research to describe and assess the impact of solitary confinement reforms.

Impact of a Prison Therapeutic Diversion Unit on Mental and Behavioral Health Outcomes

Incarcerated individuals with mental health disorders are disproportionally sent to restrictive housing (i.e., solitary confinement), which is known to have deleterious impacts on mental health. In response, North Carolina's prison system developed Therapeutic Diversion Units, treatment-oriented units for incarcerated individuals with high mental health needs who cycle in and out of restrictive housing. This analysis compares the impact of restrictive housing and Therapeutic Diversion Units on infractions, mental health, and self-harm among incarcerated individuals. Data were 2016-2019 incarceration records from North Carolina prisons. Outcomes were rates of infractions, inpatient mental health admissions, and self-harm in restrictive housing and Therapeutic Diversion Units. Inverse probability of treatment weights was used to adjust for confounding, and Poisson regression with generalized estimating equations was used to estimate adjusted rate ratios. Analyses were conducted between January and December 2020. The analytic sample was 3,480 people, of whom 463 enrolled in a Therapeutic Diversion Unit. Compared with Therapeutic Diversion Unit rates, the rate of infractions was 3 times as high in restrictive housing (adjusted rate ratio=2.99, 95% CI=2.31, 3.87), the inpatient mental health admissions rate was 3.5 times as high (adjusted rate ratio=3.57, 95% CI=1.97, 6.46), and the self-injury incident rate was 3.5 times as high (adjusted rate ratio=3.46, 95% CI=2.11, 5.69). Therapeutic Diversion Unit use had strong impacts on infractions, mental health, and self-harm. Therapeutic Diversion Units provide a promising alternative to restrictive housing for individuals with mental health disorders.

Time Served in Prison, in-Prison Experiences, and Perceptions of Procedural Justice

The coercive nature of prisons is a longstanding topic of academic inquiry. Although correctional staff help incarcerated individuals adjust to prison by enforcing prison rules and providing guidance, incarcerated individuals are confined against their will. Most research on this topic typically does not focus on the role that time served in prison and in-prison experiences may have on perceptions of fairness by correctional staff. In this study, we examine whether in-prison experiences vary in their effect across different lengths of time served on perceptions of procedural justice. The findings from a nationally representative sample of incarcerated individuals reveal that most in-prison experiences, such as confinement in restrictive housing, decreased perceptions of procedural justice and fairness. As correctional agencies develop strategies to help incarcerated individuals adjust to prison, it is important to recognize that the coercive nature of prisons creates difficulties for individuals to perceive treatment by staff as procedurally just.

Reforming solitary confinement: the development, implementation, and processes of a restrictive housing step down reentry program in Oregon

BackgroundOver the past decade there have been numerous and impassioned calls to reform the practice of solitary confinement in U.S. prisons. This article examines the development, implementation, and processes of a restrictive housing reentry program in the Oregon Department of Corrections. It draws on data from official documents, site observations, and interviews with 12 prison officials and 38 prisoners. The Step Up Program (SUP) seeks to improve the living conditions in restrictive housing over business-as-usual, alleviate physiological and psychological harms of solitary confinement, and use rehabilitative programming to increase success upon returning to the general prison population or community.ResultsThe impetus to change the culture and structure of restrictive housing was primarily the result of internal administrative reform. Prisoners assigned at random to housing assignments offered accounts of their daily activities suggesting that the SUP provides more time out-of-cell and greater access to other services and activities. Program participants preferred the living conditions in the SUP because they had more opportunities for social interaction and incentives for compliant behavior. However, views on the value of programming among respondents were mixed.ConclusionsThe launch of the SUP occurred in early 2020, which was soon followed by the COVID-19 pandemic. As a result, the program was never fully implemented as intended. As Oregon returns to more normal operations, it is possible that the SUP will be able to include even more out-of-cell time, greater socialization opportunities, and increased access to programming and other beneficial activities. As we await the opportunity to conduct prospective psychological and behavioral analyses, this study provides tentative support for the use of step down reentry programs in restrictive housing units.Trial registrationOpen Science Framework, Preparing adults in custody for successful reentry: An experimental study of a restrictive housing exit program in Oregon. Registered 4 October 2019, https://osf.io/t6qpx/

Window dressing: possibilities and limitations of incremental changes in solitary confinement

BackgroundIn light of mounting evidence of the physical and psychological harms associated with solitary confinement, many correctional systems, state legislators, courts, and even international human rights bodies are increasingly recommending and implementing reforms to mitigate the harms of solitary confinement, if not abolish the practice entirely. In this piece, we examine three specific infrastructural changes to solitary confinement conditions and practices implemented in Washington state prisons with such harm minimization goals in mind: (1) building so-called “nature imagery rooms” to play videos of outdoor spaces, (2) eliminating punishments for self-harm, and (3) conducting daily cell-front wellness checks.ResultsDrawing on 183 in-depth qualitative interviews with both staff working in and people imprisoned in solitary confinement units conducted in Washington state restrictive housing units in 2017, we find that these three reforms not only resulted in limited successes but also generated new conflicts. Institutional logics such as deprivation, risk-management, and responsibilization ultimately impeded even the most modest attempts to mitigate the inherently harsh practice of solitary confinement. The limits of these reforms are due in part to individual choices made by people imprisoned in solitary confinement and staff working in these units, as well as the larger cultural norms that shape life in restrictive housing units.ConclusionsIncrementalist reforms aimed at softening the environment of solitary confinement may actually serve to increase the strain and stress experienced by people confined to and working within them. Even the most well-intentioned reforms, like those attempted by the Washington DOC, should be scrutinized in order to determine if they are producing the desired outcomes, or instead, reproducing a different, but nonetheless damaging set of harms to people imprisoned in solitary confinement. Further, even well-intentioned reforms are often stymied by the underlying institutional logics of restrictive housing spaces.

Restrictive Housing in Juvenile Correctional Settings.

Restrictive Housing in Juvenile Correctional Settings.

Rights-in-between: Resident perceptions of and accessibility to rights within restricted housing units

AbstractPrison laws and policies often do not explicitly state the rights and privileges for the individuals residing there. This space is a unique example of where the law-on-the-books meet the law-in-action—a place where “law-in-between” operates in the hands of street-level workers. Using data collected from interviews with restricted housing unit residents and staff in four men's prisons, this paper examines how the law-in-between operates in a highly structured and punitive environment. Findings reveal agreement among residents and staff regarding general definitions and perceptions of rights, with some similarities regarding what rights are broadly. However, divergence exists in discussion of how rights are accessed in practice.

Strain & Gain: From Deprivation to Innovation within Restricted Housing Units

ABSTRACT The deprived nature of restricted housing units (RHUs) leaves residents fraught with an innumerable amount of strain. Coupled with a problematic grievance system, the social structure of RHUs can prevent residents from attaining desired goals of basic needs through conventional/formal RHU routines and processes. Framing our data using Merton’s strain theory, we find some residents turn to deviant innovative behaviors as a means of achieving basic goals when they have no legitimate way of attaining them otherwise. Analyzing data from interviews with 44 male residents, our study examines the characteristics of RHU residents’ innovation. Our findings show these innovative behaviors are characterized by the number of actors, the communication style of the behavior, and the degree of violence. These findings begin to unpack how extremely punitive and tightly controlled sanctions may work in counterproductive ways. We also discuss the theoretical and policy implications of this contradictory behavior and what it means for prison administrators.

“We gon be alright:” containment, creativity, and the birth of hip-hop

In the United States, Black cultural production is bound up with geographic containment, restrictions on mobility, and racial segregation. Jazz, hip-hop, house music, and the Minneapolis Sound (the music associated with late recording artist, Prince) were mid-wifed by some of the most repressive systems of geographic order. Indeed, containment and creativity, geographies of trouble and hope are hallmarks of Black cultural production. This dialectic calls into question the belief that art can only be created in conducive or untroubled spaces. Hip-hop provides a perfect case study to challenge this assumption. Born in the Bronx, NY in the early 1970’s, hip-hop was a cultural movement that emerged in against the backdrop of racial and economic segregation, mass incarceration, and joblessness. Yet, hop-hop “danced its way of these constrictions” and created geographies of hope. In doing this, hip-hop shows that Black cultural production and the radical imagination from which it springs, have the capacity to create counter-spatial imaginaries that challenge those under which it was produced. To that end, this article addresses the relationship between creativity and containment. Through linking the rise of carceral power, racially restrictive housing practices, a deindustrializing economy, and expanding prison populations with the hip-hop, I demonstrate the dialectic between systematic spatial containment of poor and working-class Black and Latinx Americans and the role it played in creation of the world’s most powerful cultural force.

A Legal Right to Clozapine Therapy for Incarcerated Individuals With Treatment-Resistant Schizophrenia.

People with serious mental illnesses increasingly are being treated in jails and prisons, and during incarceration are afforded a constitutional right to medical care. This right pertains to both general medical and mental illnesses and both acute and chronic conditions. However, incarcerated patients with treatment-resistant schizophrenia (TRS) often are not offered clozapine, the only medication for this debilitating illness approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. In this column, the authors argue that incarcerated individuals with TRS have a statutory and constitutional right to treatment with clozapine.

Pets as family and pigs in crates: Public attitudes towards farrowing crates

Restricting farm animals’ movement is a highly contentious practice, and yet farrowing crates are widely used to house lactating sows and piglets. Socially sustainable changes on farrowing systems may be compromised due to the lack of information on societal attitudes towards farrowing crates. Attitudes are shaped by an individual’s experiences and beliefs; having a pet may influence belief in animal sentience and empathy towards animals, and thus public concern towards animal welfare. Therefore, understanding peoples’ attitudes towards farrowing crates can contribute to future decisions on that matter. This study aimed at investigating the influence of sociodemographic characteristics, including having a pet and perceived relationship with pet, on Brazilian citizens’ attitudes towards farrowing crates. People who had pets or not (Sv1) and people who had a dog or cat (Sv2) were recruited online to participate in two surveys. We provided a brief text and two short videos illustrating conventional farrowing crates and asked participants to rate, in 5-point Likert scales, their attitudes towards farrowing crates and to justify their answer. In Sv2 we also asked people to indicate whether they regarded their pet as a child, a family member, a friend or an animal. Seventy five percent of the participants (Sv1, n = 891; Sv2, n = 1048) were opposed to housing pigs in farrowing crates. Attitudes towards farrowing crates were positively correlated with the perceived quality of life of the sows (Sv1: r = 0.77, p < 0.001; Sv2: r = 0.76, p < 0.001) and piglets (Sv1: r = 0.75, p < 0.001; Sv2: r = 0.7, p < 0.001). Lower attitude scores were associated with participants’ being females, urbanites, with no involvement in livestock, no previous awareness of the practice, as well as with attributing higher sentience to pigs, having a pet, and regarding it as a child or member of the family (p < 0.001). Having a pet (Sv1, Ch-Sq = 9.1, 1 df, p = 0.002) and regarding the pet a child or member of the family (Sv2, Ch-Sq = 49.3, 3 df, p < 0.001) led to greater agreement with the statement “I feel bad for the sow”. Opposition to farrowing crates was underpinned by belief in animal sentience, empathy towards animals, and animal welfare concerns. Throughout the world, urban citizens are becoming increasingly detached from livestock production; pets are the main reference animals for many and, in some cases, part of the family. Thus, our findings suggest that restrictive housing systems for farm animals may become increasingly irreconcilable with societal values.

Factors Associated With Lameness in Tie Stall Housed Dairy Cows in South Germany.

Lameness remains a major concern for animal welfare and productivity in modern dairy production. Even though a trend toward loose housing systems exists and the public expects livestock to be kept under conditions where freedom of movement and the expression of natural behavior are ensured, restrictive housing systems continue to be the predominant type of housing in some regions. Factors associated with lameness were evaluated by application of multiple logistic regression modeling on data of 1,006 dairy cows from 56 tie stall farms in Bavaria, South Germany. In this population, approximately every fourth cow was lame (24.44% of scored animals). The mean farm level prevalence of lameness was 23.28%. In total, 22 factors were analyzed regarding their association with lameness. A low Body Condition Score (BCS) (OR 1.54 [95%-CI 1.05–2.25]) as well as increasing parity (OR 1.41 [95%-CI 1.29–1.54]) entailed greater odds of lameness. Moreover, higher milk yield (OR 0.98 [95%-CI 0.96–1.00]) and organic farming (OR 0.48 [95%-0.25–0.92]) appeared to be protectively associated with lameness. Cows with hock injuries (OR 2.57 [95%-CI 1.41–4.67]) or with swellings of the ribs (OR 2.55 [95%-CI 1.53–4.23]) had higher odds of lameness. A similar association was observed for the contamination of the lower legs with distinct plaques of manure (OR 1.88 [95%-CI 1.14–3.10]). As a central aspect of tie stall housing, the length of the stalls was associated with lameness; with stalls of medium [(>158–171 cm) (OR 2.15 [95%-CI 1.29–3.58]) and short (≤158 cm) length (OR 4.07 [95%-CI 2.35–7.05]) increasing the odds compared with long stalls (>171 cm). These results can help both gaining knowledge on relevant factors associated with lameness as well as approaching the problem of dairy cow lameness in tie stall operations.

Altering Administrative Segregation for Prisoners and Staff: A Mixed Methods Analysis of the Effects of Living and Working in Restrictive Housing

Altering Administrative Segregation for Prisoners and Staff: A Mixed Methods Analysis of the Effects of Living and Working in Restrictive Housing