Restrictive Housing Research Articles

The use of restrictive housing with incarcerated persons with mental illness: Variation in placement disparities by restrictive housing type

PurposeConcerns have been raised about mental illness (MI)-linked disparities in restrictive housing (RH) placements, but research has not compared disparities across multiple types of RH. Differences by MI status in prison adjustment or repeated misconduct could create larger disparities for long-term and highly restrictive types of RH; conversely, more stringent procedures governing their use could lead to smaller disparities for those types. MethodsUsing data on six types of RH in a large southern prison system and logistic multivariate multilevel models, we compared the associations of MI with multiple RH types. Mediation models examined whether infractions, violence, and victimization accounted for any associations. ResultsDisparities were present for all examined types of RH. The largest proportional disparities were found for the rarer long-term solitary confinement placements. Although disparities were smaller for short-term types of RH, those affected more people. The mediators appeared to be better explanations of short-term rather than long-term RH placements among persons with MI. ConclusionsRH placement disparities by MI are largest for types that are of long duration and involve severe restrictions on privileges and activities. In addition, the disparities in those RH types may be less accounted for by commonly examined behavioral factors.

Lasting Legacy: The Enduring Relationship Between Racially Restrictive Housing Covenants and Health and Wellbeing.

Racially restrictive covenants in housing deeds, commonplace in Minnesotafor houses built from the 1910s to the 1950s, provided a foundation for the myriad of policies that made it difficult for people of color to obtain housing. Though covenants were ruled illegal in 1968, their legacy continues to shape neighborhoods. The Mapping Prejudice Project's efforts in Hennepin County, Minnesota, produced the first systematic documentation of racially restrictive covenants. We use this novel data set to explore the relationship between historic covenants and current health and wellbeing outcomes. Using regression analysis to control for neighborhood level covariates, we compare previously covenanted neighborhoods to neighborhoods without covenants. Today, previously covenanted neighborhoods have higher life expectancy and lower rates of obesity, diabetes, coronary heart disease, and asthma than neighborhoods without racially restrictive covenants. Additionally, previously covenanted neighborhoods have less upward mobility for children from poorer households, and there are larger gaps in upward mobility between white and Black children. These findings contribute to a growing literature that shows racist policies, even decades after they are legally enforceable, leave an imprint on neighborhoods. Using the novel data from the MappingPrejudiceProject, we provide statistical analysis that confirms qualitative and anecdotal evidence on the role of racial covenants in shaping neighborhoods.

Association of a novel restrictive housing diversion program with rates of mental health and self-injury in prison.

Restrictive housing for control purposes (RHCP, a form of solitary confinement) is used in prisons in response to disruptive behaviors, including violence. North Carolina prisons introduced the rehabilitative diversion unit (RDU) in 2016 as an alternative to and step-down from RHCP. We compared rates of psychiatric treatment and self-injury among men enrolled in the RDU and men eligible for the RDU but placed in RHCP. We used Poisson regression to calculate rate ratios (RRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for these outcomes, using inverse probability of treatment weights to adjust for confounders. The cohort included 1,225 men in the RDU group and 3,059 in the RHCP group. In RHCP, the adjusted psychiatric treatment rate was 2.6 times (95% CI: 1.8, 3.8) and the adjusted self-injury incident rate was 1.2 times (95% CI: 0.6, 2.8) that in RDU. Nearly all self-injury incidents in RDU occurred during "non-participating time" (i.e., in a restrictive housing setting and not actively participating in RDU). After excluding non-participating time from the RDU group's person time, the adjusted RR for self-injury incidents was 23.5 (95% CI: 8.6, 64.2). These results further knowledge of potential benefits of diversion from restrictive housing. Continued development, implementation, and evaluation is needed.

Impact of COVID on Housing & Home for People With Intellectual & Developmental Disabilities

Abstract Date Presented 03/23/24 During COVID, people with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD) were forced to move into restricted housing with family or new environments. Even when allowed to remain in their home, they often experienced a loss of routine and social connectedness, creating isolation and loneliness. Primary Author and Speaker: Karla Ausderau Additional Authors and Speakers: Hannah Laufenberg, Allison Caudill

Prior incarceration, restrictive housing, and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in a community sample of persons who use drugs

BackgroundCriminalization of drugs in the United States (US) has extensive consequences for people who use drugs (PWUD). Incarceration and substance use overlap with 65% of the US prison population meeting substance use disorder (SUD) criteria. Exposure to the criminal-legal system negatively impacts the health of PWUD. PTSD is commonly comorbid with SUDs, and exposure to restrictive housing (RH) during incarceration may worsen mental health. Because PWUD are disproportionately incarcerated, experiences occurring during incarceration, such as RH, may contribute to the development or exacerbation of PTSD and SUDs. This study of PWUD investigated prior criminal-legal system exposure and its association with PTSD symptoms in community-dwelling PWUD.MethodsThis cross-sectional study recruited PWUD from syringe service programs (SSP). Inclusion criteria were: age 18+, current or past opioid use disorder, and SSP enrollment. Data collected included: sociodemographics; incarceration, substance use, SUD treatment history, and PTSD assessments (Life Events Checklist for DSM-5 and the PTSD Checklist for DSM-5). Bivariate testing and multivariate logistic regression analyses, with probable PTSD as the dependent variable and a three-level variable for criminal legal history as the independent variable, were conducted to determine whether incarceration and RH were associated with probable PTSD.ResultsOf 139 participants, 78% had an incarceration history with 57% of these having a history of RH. 57% of participants screened positive for probable PTSD, and physical assault was the most common traumatic exposure. Any history of incarceration was not associated with probable PTSD diagnosis; however, in multivariate testing, adjusting for age, sex, and substance use, a history of RH (adjusted odds ratio [aOR]: 3.76, 95% CI 1.27–11.11) was significantly associated with probable PTSD.ConclusionsRH and PTSD were both exceptionally common in a sample of SSP participants. RH can be detrimental to physical and mental health. Clinicians and policy makers may not consider incarceration as a traumatic experience for PWUD; however, our data suggest that among highly marginalized PWUD, prior exposure to incarceration and RH may add an additional burden to their daily struggles, namely PTSD.

Investigating the impact of 1 hour of daily outdoor access on the gait and hoof health of nonclinically lame cows housed in a movement-restricted environment

Tiestalls, known for restrictive housing, can reduce cows' locomotor skills over time. While outdoor access benefits clinically lame cows, its effect on nonclinically lame cows is less known. This study evaluated 1 h daily outdoor access on gait and hoof health of nonclinically lame Holstein cows in tiestalls. Thirty cows, blocked by parity and DIM, were assigned to exercise (1 h outdoor access 5 d/wk for 5 wk) or nonexercise groups. Visual scoring assessed 6 gait attributes and overall gait (on scales of 0–5 and 1–5, respectively) at pre-trial, post-trial, and 8-wk follow-up stages. A total of 15 cows (9 exercise, 6 nonexercise) underwent visual gait scoring, with logistical challenges and exclusion criteria leading to this selection. Hoof health for all 30 cows was evaluated during pre-trial and follow-up hoof trims, documenting claw lesions. Hoof thermography captured dorsal coronary band views in wk 1 and 5. No significant gait score changes were observed, but exercise cows showed a 1-point improvement in overall gait score and 3 gait attributes after 5 wk of outdoor access, which persisted at follow-up. Sole hemorrhages were the only claw lesions observed, and their prevalence and severity remained consistent between pre-trial and follow-up for both groups. Thermography showed consistent coronary band temperature metrics across groups and over time. In conclusion, brief outdoor sessions resulted in noticeable, albeit not statistically significant, improvements in the gait of nonclinically lame cows in restrictive housing settings without adverse hoof health effects. Further studies should evaluate different outdoor access benefits and use precise gait and hoof health analysis technologies for a more accurate detection of subtle changes.

A longitudinal examination of stepping up, stepping out with incarcerated men in restrictive housing: An expansion of the 2021 pilot.

A longitudinal examination of stepping up, stepping out with incarcerated men in restrictive housing: An expansion of the 2021 pilot.

Racial differences in testing for infectious diseases: An analysis of jail intake data.

HIV and hepatitis C virus (HCV) testing for all people in jail is recommended by the CDC. In the community, there are barriers to HIV and HCV testing for minoritized people. We examined the relationship between race and infectious diseases (HIV, HCV, syphilis) testing in one Massachusetts jail, Middlesex House of Corrections (MHOC). This is a retrospective analysis of people incarcerated at MHOC who opted-in to infectious diseases testing between 2016-2020. Variables of interest were race/ethnicity, self-identified history of psychiatric illness, and ever having experienced restrictive housing. Twenty-three percent (1,688/8,467) of people who were incarcerated requested testing at intake. Of those, only 38% received testing. Black non-Hispanic (25%) and Hispanic people (30%) were more likely to request testing than white people (19%). Hispanic people (16%, AOR 1.69(1.24-2.29) were more likely to receive a test result compared to their white non-Hispanic (8%, AOR 1.54(1.10-2.15)) counterparts. Black non-Hispanic and Hispanic people were more likely to opt-in to and complete infectious disease testing than white people. These findings could be related to racial disparities in access to care in the community. Additionally, just over one-third of people who requested testing received it, underscoring that there is room for improvement in ensuring testing is completed. We hope our collaborative efforts with jail professionals can encourage other cross-disciplinary investigations.

Homeowner politics and housing supply

This paper examines whether homeowner opposition to nearby housing development affects local councillors’ votes on housing bills. Homeowners benefit financially from restricted housing supply through increased housing prices. City councillors, who approve housing development applications, cater to the needs of homeowners who are often long-term resident voters with a financial stake in neighbourhood amenity levels. Using data from Toronto, Canada from 2009 to 2020, we identify housing bills through a machine learning algorithm. We find that councillors who represent more homeowners oppose more housing bills. In particular, councillors are significantly more likely to oppose large housing developments if the project is within their own ward.

Establishing Key Facts About Restrictive Housing—A Systems-Level Descriptive Analysis of Restrictive Housing and the Implications for Theory, Research, and Policy

Concerns about restrictive housing are motivated in part by the assumption that as prison systems expanded and became more punitive, restrictive housing became overly routine. Limited empirical research exists, however, that quantifies its usage. The goal of this paper is twofold. First, we argue that a more detailed understanding of restrictive housing usage is required to advance theory, research, and evidence-based policy. Second, we bring data to bear on questions about the prevalence and trends in the use of the most routine forms of restrictive housing in Ohio prisons. We analyze 9 years of event history data to develop an empirical portrait of its use across the system and over time. We track how many individuals are placed and how long they are placed and we examine variation across facility characteristics. The paper concludes with a discussion focused on extending this work to investigate restrictive housing usage and impacts.

Restrictive housing for prison rule violators: Specific deterrence or defiance?

Restrictive housing for prison rule violators: Specific deterrence or defiance?

Mental health services in restricted housing: Do we know what's going on behind the steel doors?

The use of administrative segregation (AS) in North American prisons remains a common but contentious practice that is currently at the forefront of human rights and legal discussions. While extant research is mixed regarding the direct links between segregation and psychological functioning, it is clear these individuals are worse off in many ways. Mental and behavioral health interventions appear especially limited for people incarcerated in secure units, yet little is known about the extent of services offered or existing barriers to service provision. Using a standardized survey, we attempted to obtain a nationally representative sampling of mental health practices for people incarcerated in segregation and frontline provider perspectives across 24 state prisons. Survey results suggest that, while most facilities offer some form of mental health services to clients in restrictive units, most do not provide structured, manualized interventions. An even smaller number provide interventions specifically tailored to this unique population. Perceptions of service delivery barriers fell into four categories: (a) the nature of the restrictive environment, (b) lack of available programs, (c) staff-related concerns, and (d) client/inmate-related concerns. We conclude with recommendations to improve program accessibility and delivery on segregated units. Focused intervention efforts may reduce the number and duration of restricted placements. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Did Changes to Disciplinary Segregation Policy Affect Rates of Institutional Misconduct?

Due to concerns about the harmful effects of restrictive housing, the Minnesota Department of Corrections reduced the maximum disciplinary segregation sentence length from 720 days (about 2 years) to 90 days in September 2016. Then, in response to a perceived increase in violence within the facilities, the policy was changed again in July 2019 to allow for maximum segregation sentences of nearly a year for the most serious offenses. This study employs a quasi-experimental design to empirically test whether and how these changes affected total misconduct, violent misconduct, and incarcerated-person-on-staff assault within Minnesota prisons. The results of interrupted time series analyses showed a moderate, statistically significant initial increase in violent misconduct after the reduction in segregation sentence length in September 2016. There were also statistically significant and larger initial increases in both violent and total misconduct after the July 2019 increase in segregation sentence length for serious infractions.

Disparities in Segregation for Prison Control: Comparing Long Term Solitary Confinement to Short Term Disciplinary Restrictive Housing

Following a recent study of disparities in solitary confinement (SC) placements in Florida, we examined related dis­parities in the use of extended restrictive housing in Ohio (SC conditions) while expanding the analysis to short term restrictive housing, a substantially more common prison experience. Analyses of 183,872 incarcerated persons (IPs) revealed substantive disparities in prevalence and incidence of placements in both short- and long-term restrictive housing (RH). Controlling for types of rule violations and other risk indicators, disparities emerged based on an IP’s sex, age, race, education, learning skills, substance abuse risk, and mental health. Many findings are consistent with the Florida study and extend to the more routine short term RH. Similar studies will be critical for generating a body of knowledge that may demonstrate the same types and levels of RH disparities regardless of prison system, contributing greatly to RH policy debates and critical criminological perspectives.

Evaluation of a prison violence prevention program: impacts on violent and non-violent prison infractions.

Individuals who commit acts of violence in prisons are often placed in highly controlled environments called restrictive housing (i.e., solitary confinement), which can have severe physical and mental health consequences and does not reduce violence. As such, North Carolina prisons have introduced the rehabilitative diversion unit (RDU) to reduce the use of restrictive housing and reduce violence in prison. We evaluated the effect of the RDU on prison infractions. We compared rates of infractions by type (including violent infractions) among men enrolled in the RDU and men who were eligible for the RDU but placed in restrictive housing for control purposes (RHCP). We also evaluated sustained program impacts by comparing the hazard of first infraction among these same two groups of men after program completion, when they had returned to the general prison population. Finally, we compared the hazard of first promotion to a less restrictive custody level (medium custody) when these men had returned to the general prison population. The primary analytic cohort was made up of 3128 men contributing 897,822 person-days. Adjusted rates of violent infractions were lower in the RDU than in RHCP (adjusted rate ratio: 0.6; 95% CI: 0.4, 1.1). All other categories of infractions, including drug-related infractions, occurred at higher rates during RDU, as compared to RHCP. In analyses of sustained program impacts, for most categories of infractions, there were no differences in the hazard of first infraction post-RDU and post-RHCP. However, the hazard of violent infraction post-RDU was higher (adjusted hazard ratio: 2.1; 95% CI: 1.1, 4.0) than post-RHCP. The hazard of promotion to a less restrictive custody level was higher post-RDU (adjusted hazard ratio: 17.4; 95% CI: 7.2, 42.2) than post-RHCP. We found the RDU program may be effective in reducing violence for men enrolled in the program, but that these benefits were not sustained. Continued programming may be a useful tool to transition men from the programmatically intensive environment of the RDU to the general prison population. Additionally, we recommend the expansion of evidence-based treatment for substance use disorder.

Restrictive Housing Placement and Length of Stay: A Latent Class Analysis With Mixed Distributions

On average, one in five incarcerated persons will spend some time in restrictive housing (RH) during their incarceration. Despite a growing body of research on the topic of RH, few have taken into account the heterogeneity of the incarcerated individuals’ pre-RH risk profiles. In the present study, we fill this gap by estimating a latent class analysis (LCA) model to explore the heterogeneity among a sample of incarcerated individuals in New Jersey. Our LCA has both dichotomous and count variables, and we specified a model with logit and Poisson functional forms. We then examine how the latent group membership predicted RH placement and length of stay using a hurdle model. We identified a four-group LCA model, and found that groups featuring misconduct records were more likely to experience RH and stay longer in RH. Prior criminal records were less predictive of these RH outcomes.

Surviving Solitary: Living and Working in Restricted Housing Units

Surviving Solitary: Living and Working in Restricted Housing Units

“Like an animal”: the well-being of women living in restricted housing units

“Like an animal”: the well-being of women living in restricted housing units

Surviving solitary: Living and working in restricted housing units. By Danielle S. Rudes, with Shannon Magnuson and Angela Hattery. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press. 2022. 252 pp. $26 paperback

Law & Society ReviewVolume 57, Issue 1 p. 125-127 BOOK REVIEW Surviving solitary: Living and working in restricted housing units. By Danielle S. Rudes, with Shannon Magnuson and Angela Hattery. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press. 2022. 252 pp. $26 paperback Reviewed by Natalie Pifer, Corresponding Author Reviewed by Natalie Pifer npifer@uri.edu orcid.org/0000-0001-9716-0294 University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island, USASearch for more papers by this author Reviewed by Natalie Pifer, Corresponding Author Reviewed by Natalie Pifer npifer@uri.edu orcid.org/0000-0001-9716-0294 University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island, USASearch for more papers by this author First published: 14 March 2023 https://doi.org/10.1111/lasr.12645Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat No abstract is available for this article. Volume57, Issue1March 2023Pages 125-127 RelatedInformation

Stressed Out in Lock Down: The Impacts of Work in Extended Restrictive Housing on Prison Personnel

Prior work on extended restrictive housing (ERH) has focused primarily on incarcerated persons rather than on potential impacts of this housing on personnel. Drawing on scholarship on the get-tough era, prison personnel, and ERH, we seek to shed light on contemporary correctional management practices and how doing so can illuminate the broad-ranging impacts of the get-tough era. We hypothesize that operational and organizational stressors differ for ERH personnel and may contribute to greater stress and adversely affect their mental and physical health. After presenting analyses from a mixed-methods study of Florida prisons, we discuss implications of the results for research and policy. We conclude that the get-tough era has led to harms, such as negative effects for personnel, that extend beyond those who are punished to those who play a role in systems of punishment and that have implications for understanding and addressing prison system safety and order.