Restrictive Feeding Practices Research Articles

Reported Intergenerational Transmission of Parent Weight Talk and Links with Child Health and Wellbeing

ObjectivesTo examine if intergenerational transmission of parent weight talk occurs and the contextual factors prompting weight talk, and whether parent weight talk is associated with child weight, dietary intake, psychosocial outcomes, and food parenting practices. Study designChildren ages 5-9 and their families (n=1307) from six racial and ethnic groups (African-American, Hispanic, Hmong, Native American, Somali/Ethiopian, White) were recruited for a longitudinal cohort study through primary care clinics in Minneapolis/St. Paul, Minnesota from 2016 through 2019. Parents filled out surveys at two time points, 18 months apart. Adjusted regression models examined associations of interest. ResultsIntergenerational transmission of parent weight talk was observed. In addition, significant associations were found between parent engagement in weight talk and higher weight status and poorer psychosocial outcomes in children 18 months later. Parent engagement in weight talk was also associated with more restrictive food parenting practices 18 months later. ConclusionsParents’ exposure to weight talk as children increased the likelihood of engaging in weight talk with their own children and had harmful associations over time with parent restrictive feeding practices, child weight, and psychosocial wellbeing in children. Health care providers may want to consider both modeling positive health-focused conversations and educating parents about the potential harmful and long-lasting consequences of engaging in weight talk with their children.

Appetitive traits from childhood to adolescence: Analysis of their stability, derivation of trajectory profiles, and associated characteristics

This study aimed to assess the potential stability of appetitive traits from childhood to early adolescence, identify groups of individuals with distinct trajectories for these traits, and explore their association with other child and family characteristics. Participants were 5040 children from the Generation XXI cohort. Appetitive traits were assessed with the Children's Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (CEBQ) at ages seven, 10, and 13 (eight subscales). Mixed-effect models estimated individual trajectories of appetitive traits and Gaussian mixture models identified groups following different trajectories (appetitive trait trajectory profiles). Appetitive traits showed moderate-to-high stability across the three ages (intra-class correlation coefficients:0.66–0.83); most of the variance observed across time were due to persistent individual differences rather than age-related changes. Six appetitive trait trajectory profiles were identified: ‘Moderate appetite’ (scores close to the average) (29% of children), ‘Small to moderate appetite’ (lowest food approach and emotional eating) (26%), ‘Increasing appetite’ (increasing food approach) (15%), ‘Avid appetite’ (highest food approach and lowest food avoidance) (12%), ‘Smallest appetite’ (highest food avoidance and low food approach) (10%), and ‘Small appetite but increasing’ (decreasing high food avoidance and Desire to Drink) (8%). In multinomial logistic regression, these profiles were associated with different child and family characteristics. Compared to children with a ‘Moderate appetite’ profile, those with higher BMI, who desired a thinner body, whose mothers were younger, had lower education, higher pre-pregnancy BMI (OR = 1.07; 95%CI:1.04,1.09), smoked during pregnancy (OR = 1.51; 95%CI:1.21,1.90), and used more restrictive feeding practices (OR = 1.79; 95%CI:1.57,2.03) had increased odds of belonging to the ‘Avid Appetite’. In conclusion, distinct appetitive trait trajectory profiles emerged, differentiating individuals with avid and small appetites. These findings have implications for identifying children at higher risk for obesogenic profiles.

RETRACTED: Relationship of baby led weaning to other parenting and feeding constructs

BackgroundBaby-led weaning (BLW), a popular complementary feeding style, prioritizes exploration of foods, independence of children in eating, and eating with family. Though BLW has received popular attention, empirical evidence is limited. This study measured parents' reports of BLW, parenting style, and feeding practices; analyzed BLW's relation to children's dietary intake; examined how demographic variables such as age, parent sex, education, and marital status related to the prevalence of using BLW. MethodsThis cross sectional study recruited 313 parents with children ages 6–30 months via Cloud Research, an online survey platform where individuals complete surveys for compensation. Hierarchical regressions examined how feeding style, dietary intake, and parenting style related to independence, exploration, and family subscales of BLW after controlling for relevant demographics. FindingsThe majority (69.3%) of participants identified as female, white (76.6%), middle-class (52.4%), married (69%), and a third had a bachelor's degree (37.4%). Restrictive feeding practices, Ellyn Satter's division of responsibility, and the parents' sex were significant predictors of all subscales of BLW. DiscussionParents who use BLW allowed for an autonomous food experience and were less likely to restrict or control the child's eating. BLW appears to be related to, but distinct from, well-researched parent feeding practices such as restriction and division of responsibility. Application to practiceThese findings might be useful in education and interventions for healthcare professionals. Future research on BLW should examine how child behavior and nutrition outcomes compare to other feeding practices.

The association between parents' stress and parental feeding practices and feeding styles: Systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies.

In the extended UNICEF framework of early childhood nutrition, parents' stress is associated with parental feeding style. However, no comprehensive review has examined the association between parents' stress and feeding styles and practices. The objective of our review was to synthesise the current literature examining the association between parents' stress and their feeding practices and/or styles, among parents of children ≤ 5 years old. We searched; MEDLINE, EMBASE, PSYCHINFO and CINAHL from 2019 to 2021. Two investigators independently extracted relevant data and assessed the study quality and the certainty of evidence. Data were pooled using generic inverse variance with fixed effects (<5 comparisons) or random effects (≥5 comparisons) and expressed as correlation coefficients with 95% confidence intervals (CI). Between study heterogeneity was assessed using Cochran's Q and quantified with I2 . We identified 6 longitudinal and 11 cross-sectional studies, of which 4 studies provided sufficient data to be pooled. A very small correlation between general stress and restrictive feeding practices was observed (r = 0.06 [95% CI: 0.01-0.12]; no substantial heterogeneity (I2 = 0.00%, PQ < 0.85, very low certainty). No correlation between general stress and feeding pressure was identified (r = 0.06 [95% CI: -0.02 to 0.15]). Results showed that both general and parenting stress were associated with suboptimal breastfeeding practices and unresponsive feeding styles. Conclusion: This study demonstrated alow-to-moderate quality of literature for the inclusion of parents' stress in the extended UNICEF care model of child nutrition. Future research needs to explore this relationship longitudinally and in ethnic diverse populations to inform tailored interventions that promote responsive feeding practices.

Daily variability in mothers' and fathers' feeding practices and associations with children's eating behaviors

The current study explores daily variability in maternal and paternal pressuring, restrictive, and structure-related feeding practices and their associations with child energy regulation and food refusal. Multilevel models were run separately for mothers and fathers to understand these associations, as well as within a dyadic framework to account for the interdependence of partners. One hundred families with at least one child between 3- to 5-years old participated by completing seven days of daily diaries. Results suggest there is daily variability in feeding practices for mothers and fathers and children's energy regulation and food refusal. Mothers' daily reports (within family variability) suggested that on days when mothers used more pressure and less structure than usual, children showed more food refusal. Fathers' daily reports suggested that on days when fathers used more pressure or less structure, children showed less energy regulation. On average across the week (between family variability), maternal pressure and restriction was related to child energy regulation. Dyadic multilevel models suggested that fathers' daily feeding behavior was associated with child eating behavior, while mothers' pressure and restrictive feeding on average across the week was a better predictor of between family variability in child eating behavior. For provision of support or structure during feeding, maternal structure was related to less father-reported energy regulation and paternal structure was related to more father-reported energy regulation. The results highlight the necessity of considering both mothers' and fathers' behaviors from day-to-day to get a more authentic picture of the family feeding relationship.

Factors That Affect Food Parenting Practices of Children With Food Allergies

ObjectivesThe prevalence of food allergies continues to increase. Literature shows child diagnosis of a food allergy has implications for parents (e.g., higher levels of anxiety), which can influence food parenting practices (FPP). As such, the primary aim of the current study was to investigate whether FPP differ between parents of children with and without a food allergy. The secondary aim was to investigate whether secondary factors, such as historical severity of allergic reaction, will also affect FPP.MethodsParticipants were parents of children (N = 399) who completed online surveys about health history, including food allergy history, and FPP (Child Feeding Questionnaire, Structure and Control in Parent Feeding). About one-quarter (24.6%; n = 98) of children had at least one food allergy. A series of ANOVAs were conducted to assess differences in FPP between children with and without food allergies. Secondary analyses were conducted among parents of children with food allergies to examine how professional diagnosis, parental food allergy, reaction severity, hospitalization history, and presence of other chronic conditions affect FPP.ResultsParents of children with food allergies were more likely to report limit setting FPP (p = .035); there were no other significant differences in FPP between children with and without food allergies (ps > .133). Among families with food allergies, parents whose children were not professionally diagnosed with a food allergy reported greater use of restrictive feeding practices (p = .019). Compared to parents without a food allergy, when both parent and child have a food allergy, parents reported higher pressure to eat (p = .006, p = .046), use of control (p = .039), and structured feeding routines (p = .039).ConclusionsCurrent findings illustrate that FPP are similar between parents of children with and without food allergies, with parents of children with food allergies engaging in more limit setting. However, in families with a food allergic child, other factors, such as parental food allergy history, were associated with increased use of controlling FPP. Given that food parenting practices have implications for child health, it is critical to work with parents of children with food allergies to help reduce use of controlling food parenting practices.Funding SourcesUniversity at Buffalo Experiential Learning Network.

Exploring the association between parental anti-fat attitudes and restrictive feeding practices in a British and Irish sample

Parental restriction of food intake has been associated with heightened eating disorder psychopathology in some longitudinal research. Yet, relatively little is known about the determinants of restrictive feeding practices. This cross-sectional study explored the association between parents' anti-fat attitudes and their use of restrictive feeding practices in a mixed British (41.10% England, 39.90% Scotland, 4.20% Other) and Irish (14.80%) sample. Parents and caregivers (N = 472; 94.10% female; 70.90% university level education) of children between the ages of 4–8 (48.20% female; 91.10% rated as “normal weight” by their parents) completed self-report questionnaires assessing their anti-fat attitudes (dislike, fear, and blame subscales), use of restrictive feeding practices (for weight control, health purposes, and covert restriction), and how influential their child's body-weight and -shape is for their perception of themselves as parents. Overall, our hypothesis that parental anti-fat attitudes would be significantly associated with restrictive feeding practices was supported. Anti-fat attitudes related to disliking higher body-weight people and blaming parents for their child's weight were significant predictors of all forms of restrictive feeding (all ps < .05). However, anti-fat attitudes related to fearing being a higher body-weight were not significant predictors of restrictive feeding for the purposes of health nor for covert restriction (ps > .05). Additionally, our hypothesis that the associations between anti-fat attitudes and restrictive feeding practices would be stronger for parents for whom their child's body-weight and -shape more strongly influenced how they judged themselves as parents was not supported (the interaction term was not significant in two out of three analyses). Future research is needed to investigate these associations across time and in samples of higher body-weight children.

Pandemic-related parental distress: examining associations with family meals and child feeding practices during the COVID-19 pandemic

ABSTRACT The present study examined associations between COVID-19-related negative impact and parental distress and aspects of the home food environment. Parents (N= 189) of children ages 7–17 completed an online survey assessing COVID-19-related impact and distress, household meals, feeding practices, and weight concern. Results suggested an inverse association between impact and distress and structured meals and positive associations with both restrictive feeding practices and weight concern. Food insecurity significantly moderated the association between impact and structured meals and remains a necessary target for intervention. Future research should explore factors that may mitigate the impact of COVID-19-related distress on the home food environment.

Sex Differences in Maternal Restrictive Feeding Practices in the Intervention Nurses Start Infants Growing on Healthy Trajectories Study.

Intervention Nurses Start Infants Growing on Healthy Trajectories tested an early life responsive parenting (RP) intervention designed for obesity prevention. Body mass index z-score at age 3 years was lower for the RP group versus controls with a larger effect for girls than boys. We sought to determine if child sex was associated with differing maternal feeding practices and whether sex moderated intervention effects on feeding. Mothers (N=279) completed the Infant Feeding Styles Questionnaire (IFSQ) at 28 weeks, the Structure and Control in Parent Feeding (SCPF) at 1, 2, and 3 years, and the Child Feeding Questionnaire (CFQ) at 3 years. Study aims were tested using 2-way analysis of variance and repeated measures. Mothers reported greater restriction (limiting food quantity) for boys at 28 weeks (IFSQ: 3.0 ± 1.1 vs 2.8 ± 1.0, P=.07) and across annual measurements from age 1 to 3 years (SCPF: P=.04). At age 3, the intervention group effect on restriction differed by sex (CFQ: P = .047) such that higher restriction was reported by RP group mothers of boys versus girls (3.4 ± 0.7 vs 3.0 ± 0.9, P=.002) with no control group sex difference (3.4 ± 0.8 vs 3.3 ± 0.9, P=.79). There were no sex differences or sex by intervention group interactions in other reported feeding practices at any assessment (ie, structure-based feeding, pressure). Mothers of boys used more restrictive feeding through age 3. These findings may be partially explained by previously reported better self-soothing and self-regulation abilities of participating girls.

Qualitative Exploration of Dimensions of Restrictive Feeding With Australian Mothers of 6-Year-Olds

ObjectiveExplore the nature and dimensions of restrictive feeding with mothers of 6-year-olds. DesignSemistructured interviews with mothers. Conversations were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. SettingBrisbane and Adelaide, Australia. ParticipantsTwenty-nine mothers of 6-year-olds. Phenomenon of InterestMothers’ restrictive feeding practices. AnalysisQualitative thematic analysis. ResultsThis study revealed 6 key themes relating to the restrictive feeding phenomenon: restriction of specific foods and drinks; restrictive feeding practices; mothers’ motivation; mothers’ preferences for restricted foods; patterns over time; and relationships with other controlling feeding practices. Parents’ restrictive feeding practices are likely to be inherently inconsistent, with mothers reportedly varying their practices across different restricted foods, contexts, day to day, and as children age. Mothers intended to either totally restrict or restrict a food/drink in moderation, and these intentions presented qualitatively distinct characteristics across themes. Mothers commonly referred to foods/drinks restricted in moderation as treats, and their liking for these restricted foods/drinks was related to higher child access. Conclusions and ImplicationsThis study provides insights into the nature and dimensions of restrictive feeding. Further research is proposed to clarify these findings and examine the effects of child access, types of restrictive feeding practices, and parent communication on child preferences for restricted foods and drinks across a range of cultural groups.

P94 Preliminary Efficacy of the ‘Super Dads Super Kids’ Web-Based Nutrition Education Program on Determinants of Behavior and Health Behaviors of Asian Indian Fathers and Their Elementary School-Age Children

<h3>Background</h3> Fathers' nutrition knowledge, attitudes and child feeding practices impact children's eating behavior and future weight. There is a need to target fathers in child nutrition education interventions, especially in ethnic groups like Asian Indians (AI). <h3>Objective</h3> The study aimed to examine the efficacy of a social cognitive theory (SCT) based online nutrition education program on determinants of behavior (knowledge, self-efficacy) and behavior (healthy eating, physical activity) in AI fathers and their children. <h3>Study design, Settings, Participants</h3> Ninety-eight AI fathers of 6-11-year-old children from various Indian communities in Florida were recruited to participate in the web-based nutrition education program. Fathers were asked to engage with the intervention for 6 weeks and topics included father's role in child health, ideal child feeding practices, healthy eating and physical activity. Validated survey questionnaires at baseline, post-intervention (6 weeks) and follow up (12 weeks) assessed participants' knowledge, child feeding, self-efficacy, self-regulation, diet and physical activity for fathers and their children. <h3>Analysis</h3> Descriptive statistics and Repeated Measures ANOVA were performed through SPSS v 26. <h3>Results</h3> Majority of AI fathers were between 35-44 years (75.5%). There was a statistically significant increase on the AI fathers' nutrition knowledge (F = 120.93, <i>P</i> < 0.01), self-efficacy (F = 19.980, <i>P</i> < 0.01), self-regulation (F = 10.387, <i>P</i> < 0.01), overall diet quality (F = 12.257, <i>P</i> < 0.01), physical activity (F = 32.790, <i>P</i> < 0.01) and a reduction in restrictive feeding practices (F = 5.683, <i>P</i> = 0.004) through the intervention. Improvements were also noted in father reported child fruit and vegetable intake (F = 30.821, <i>P</i> < 0.01), total fat consumed/day (F = 4.040, <i>P</i> = 0.020) and physical activity minutes (F = 15.018, <i>P</i> < 0.01). <i>Post hoc</i> analyses revealed significant changes between baseline and post-intervention for all 9 outcomes and post-intervention and follow up for AI fathers' diet related self-efficacy and self-regulation scores. <h3>Conclusion</h3> Web-based interventions are effective to improve behavioral determinants and behavior in AI fathers' and their children. Future studies should consider diverse AI father groups for childhood obesity prevention.

Associations between Children's Genetic Susceptibility to Obesity, Infant's Appetite and Parental Feeding Practices in Toddlerhood.

Previous findings suggest that parental feeding practices may adapt to children’s eating behavior and sex, but few studies assessed these associations in toddlerhood. We aimed to study the associations between infant’s appetite or children’s genetic susceptibility to obesity and parental feeding practices. We assessed infant’s appetite (three-category indicator: low, normal or high appetite, labelled 4-to-24-month appetite) and calculated a combined obesity risk-allele score (genetic risk score of body mass index (BMI-GRS)) in a longitudinal study of respectively 1358 and 932 children from the EDEN cohort. Parental feeding practices were assessed at 2-year-follow-up by the CFPQ. Three of the five tested scores were used as continuous variables; others were considered as binary variables, according to the median. Associations between infant’s appetite or child’s BMI-GRS and parental feeding practices were assessed by linear and logistic regression models, stratified on child’s sex if interactions were significant. 4-to-24-month appetite was positively associated with restrictive feeding practices among boys and girls. Among boys, high compared to normal 4-to-24-month appetite was associated with higher use of food to regulate child’s emotions (OR [95% CI] = 2.24 [1.36; 3.68]). Child’s BMI-GRS was not related to parental feeding practices. Parental feeding practices may adapt to parental perception of infant’s appetite and child’s sex.

The Forbidden Reward. The Emergence of Parent-Child Conflicts About Food Over Time and the Influence of Parents' Communication Strategies and Feeding Practices.

One of the most critical arenas for conflicts between parents and their children relates to food. Although parent-child conflicts about food are a real occurrence, this form of parent-child interaction has been rarely examined. Given the special role of parents in shaping children's diet, we especially focus on the impact of parental measures. This study investigates how parental communication strategies (i.e., active vs. restrictive) and feeding practices (i.e., overt control vs. covert control) affect the emergence of parent-child conflicts about food over time. Based on previous research, we assessed overt control through parents' use of food as a reward and restriction of their children's access to specific food types. We explored the impact of our predictors on both conflicts about unhealthy and healthy food with a two-wave panel study including parents and their children (N = 541; children aged between 5 and 11) in Austria between fall 2018 and spring 2019. Results of two multiple linear regressions indicated that predominantly parents' use of unhealthy food as a reward is connected to both healthy and unhealthy food conflicts. Furthermore, inconsistent parental educational styles increased the respective conflict potential. Active food-related mediation and covert control did not relate to food-related conflicts about unhealthy and healthy food. Parents' increased use of overtly controlling and restrictive feeding practices might not be only counterproductive for children's diet but also for food-related parent-child interactions. Instead, a “health discourse” (i.e., active food-related mediation) might prevent food-related conflicts and foster a healthy growth in the future.

Learning to overeat in infancy: Concurrent and prospective relationships between maternal BMI, feeding practices and child eating response among Hispanic mothers and children.

Parents play a key role in shaping children's eating behaviours and self-regulation. There is limited data on how maternal weight influences feeding practices in the first year of life. To examine the relationships between maternal BMI, feeding practices and infant eating behaviours related to self-regulation. Participants were 160 mother-infant dyads. A longitudinal design was used to examine concurrent and prospective associations between maternal 6-month postpartum BMI, mothers' feeding practices at 6 months (Infant Feeding Practices Questionnaire) and children's eating behaviours at 6 months (Baby Eating Behaviour Questionnaire) and 12 months (Child Eating Behaviour Questionnaire). Higher maternal BMI was associated positively with mothers' use of restrictive feeding practices (β = 0.036, p = 0.033), and inversely with responsivity to infant satiety cues (Spearman partial r = -0.249, p = 0.002) at 6 months. Mother's restrictive feeding practices were associated with infant food responsiveness (β = 0.157, p = 0.009) and emotional overeating (β = 0.118, p = 0.005) at 12 months. Maternal use of responsive feeding practices was associated with lower infant food responsiveness at 6 months (Spearman partial r = -0.173, p = 0.031) and lower emotional overeating at 12 months (Spearman partial r = -0.183, p = 0.022). Our findings add to studies suggesting that feeding practices can provide mechanistic pathways in the intergenerational transmission of obesity. Postpartum family-system approaches focusing on maternal health while integrating infant feeding guidance may confer benefits in improving maternal-child health.

Controlling child feeding practices and child weight: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Controlling child feeding practices (restriction and pressure-to-eat) have been theorized to predict increased child weight status. However, mixed evidence has been found for this association within previous narrative reviews. The present study quantitatively examined the association between controlling feeding practices and child weight status and examine potential study-level and person-level moderators. PubMed, PsychINFO, and Cochrane databases were utilized. Studies examining the association of controlling child feeding practices and child weight were included. Data from 51 studies, with 17 431 parent-child dyads, were included. There was a small but significant association between restrictive child feeding practices and child weight (d = .22, 95% CI, .14 to .30). Restriction was significantly associated with higher child weight status. This association was significantly moderated by child age and household income. There was also a significant association between pressure-to-eat child feeding practices and child weight (d = -.30, 95% CI, -.38 to -.22). No significant moderators were identified. Pressure-to-eat was significantly associated with lower child weight status. There was a high degree of heterogeneity of effects between studies included in analyses. Longitudinal studies are needed to examine the effect of controlling feeding on child weight over time.

Teaching families to manage intake of candy in the home: Results from a feasibility study using multiphase optimization strategy (MOST).

SummaryBackgroundExcess intake of desserts/sweets high in added sugars, such as candy, is linked with greater obesity risk. Parents often limit their childrens' intake of these sweet foods using controlling feeding practices, such as restriction; yet, restrictive feeding practices are counterproductive for childrens' self‐regulation of energy intake.ObjectiveThis study developed a family‐based behavioural intervention that taught parents alternatives to restrictive feeding practices and encouraged children to consume candy in moderation.MethodsUsing the multiphase optimization strategy (MOST), parent–child dyads (N = 37) were randomized into one of eight conditions that included a combination of intervention components delivered over 4 weeks: home supply, parent shared decision making, child mindfulness and child attention control strategies.ResultsRetention rate at follow‐up was high (95%). Among parents who received parent shared decision making, 86.4% reported the structured‐based candy routine they set with their child was easy to follow. Most children reported child mindfulness (95%) and attention control (89.5%) strategies were easy to play. Children recalled 4.1 ± 1.8 of the six mindfulness strategies and 2.7 ± 1.6 of the five attention control strategies at follow‐up. Eating in the absence of hunger tended to be lower for children who received parent shared decision making and child mindfulness components.ConclusionThis intervention was feasible and well‐implemented in the home environment. Findings will inform future, larger interventions designed to test similar strategies on childrens; eating behaviours and self‐regulation.

Associations between parental stress, parent feeding practices, and child eating behaviors within the context of food insecurity.

Food insecurity is becoming increasingly prevalent, especially for children from diverse households. Food insecurity presents a potentially different context in which parents engage in food-related parenting practices and children engage in eating behaviors. Parents may also experience higher levels of stress and depressed mood in the context of food insecurity. This study aims to examine associations between momentary parental stress and depressed mood, food-related parenting practices, and child eating behaviors within food secure and insecure households. Children ages 5–7 and their families (n = 150) from six racial/ethnic groups (n = 25 each African American, Hispanic, Hmong, Native American, Somali, White) were recruited for this mixed-methods study through primary care clinics in Minneapolis/St. Paul, MN in 2015–2016. High levels of parental stress and depressed mood experienced earlier in the day within food insecure households was associated with using restrictive feeding practices and serving more pre-prepared foods at the evening meal the same night. Parents from food secure households who experienced high levels of stress earlier in the day were more likely to engage in pressure-to-eat feeding practices, serve more fast food, and to have children who engaged in picky eating behaviors at the evening meal the same night. Health care clinicians may want to consider, or continue to, screen parents for food insecurity, stress, and depressed mood during well child visits and discuss the influence these factors may have on every day food-related parenting practices. Additionally, future research should consider using real-time interventions to reduce parental stress to promote healthy food-related parenting practices within food insecure and secure households.

Observed restrictive feeding practices among low-income mothers of pre-adolescents.

To describe verbal and non-verbal restrictive feeding practices used by low-income mothers with their pre-adolescent children during a laboratory-based protocol, and examine associations between mother/child anthropometrics, child appetitive traits and mothers' restrictive practices. Mothers and children (dyad n = 108, mean child age = 11.0 years [SD = 1.2]) were provided a standardized meal and then buffet of desserts. Sessions were video-recorded, and trained coders reliably identified positive and negative restrictive statements, non-verbal restrictive behaviours and redirection to healthier foods. Mother/child anthropometrics were measured by trained study staff and child appetitive traits reported by mothers using subscales of the Children's Eating Behaviours Questionnaire. Negative binomial regression was used to examine associations between mother/child characteristics and restrictive practices. Nearly all mothers (89.8%) engaged in restrictive feeding during the dessert buffet. Positive restrictive statements were the most common form of restriction (mean statements/10 minutes = 3.2 [SD = 3.1]). No associations were observed between children's body mass index (BMI) or appetitive traits and mothers' restrictive feeding practices. Associations of small effect size were observed between mothers' BMI, use of positive restrictive statements (incidence rate ratio [IRR] = 0.98 [0.96-0.996]) and non-verbal restrictive behaviours (IRR = 0.96 [0.93-0.99]). Laboratory-based feeding protocols can objectively assess nuances in restrictive feeding practices. Further research is needed to understand how specific approaches to restriction affect children's eating behaviours and weight.

Common Feeding Practices Pose A Risk to the Welfare of Horses When Kept on Non-Edible Bedding.

Simple SummaryIt is a basic high priority need of every horse to take in roughage continuously. In order to ensure the horses’ behavioural, physical and mental welfare, any pause of feed intake should not last for more than 4 hours. However, this basic need is often neglected in practice. The aim of the presented study was to assess the welfare of horses that are fed restrictively (non ad libitum) and kept in individual housing systems. We analyzed whether the feed intake behaviour of horses on edible bedding differs from the one of horses on non-edible bedding. As a common practice, the individually stabled horses were fed roughage twice or thrice a day. Our results showed that with this restrictive feeding practice, the horses were not able to eat any roughage for approx. 9 h during the night. Horses on non-edible bedding altered their feed intake behaviour - i.e., they paused less often during their meals and at a later point in time than the horses on edible bedding. We conclude that special feeding patterns have to be implemented (e.g., automated forage feeding systems) to avoid any impairment of the horses’ welfare if kept on non-edible bedding.During the evolution of the horse, an extended period of feed intake, spread over the entire 24-h period, determined the horses’ behaviour and physiology. Horses will not interrupt their feed intake for more than 4 h, if they have a choice. The aim of the present study was to investigate in what way restrictive feeding practices (non ad libitum) affect the horses’ natural feed intake behaviour. We observed the feed intake behaviour of 104 horses on edible (n = 30) and non-edible bedding (n = 74) on ten different farms. We assessed the duration of the forced nocturnal feed intake interruption of horses housed on shavings when no additional roughage was available. Furthermore, we comparatively examined the feed intake behaviour of horses housed on edible versus non-edible bedding. The daily restrictive feeding of roughage (2 times a day: n = 8; 3 times a day: n = 2), as it is common in individual housing systems, resulted in a nocturnal feed intake interruption of more than 4 hours for the majority (74.32%, 55/74) of the horses on shavings (8:50 ± 1:25 h, median: 8:45 h, minimum: 6:45 h, maximum: 13:23 h). In comparison to horses on straw, horses on shavings paused their feed intake less frequently and at a later latency. Furthermore, they spent less time on consuming the evening meal than horses on straw. Our results of the comparison of the feed-intake behaviour of horses on edible and non-edible bedding show that the horses’ ethological feeding needs are not satisfied on non-edible bedding. If the horses accelerate their feed intake (also defined as “rebound effect”), this might indicate that the horses‘ welfare is compromised. We conclude that in addition to the body condition score, the longest duration of feed intake interruption (usually in the night) is an important welfare indicator of horses that have limited access to roughage.

Association of gestational diabetes with child feeding practices: A secondary analysis using data from mother-child dyads in the deep south

BackgroundThe purpose of this study was to examine whether mothers with prior gestational diabetes (GDM) used different feeding practices for their children compared to those without prior GDM. We hypothesized that mothers with prior GDM would express a greater concern for their child's weight, and greater monitoring and restrictive feeding practices compared to non-diabetic mothers. MethodsData for this secondary analysis came from studies examining body composition and metabolism in children (aged 4–10 years) born to women with (N = 41) and without (N = 71) GDM. A Child Feeding Questionnaire (CFQ) was used to assess maternal perception of the child's weight and her feeding practices. Analysis of covariance was used to assess group differences in feeding practices, after adjusting for parent study code, maternal education, child BMI-z, and maternal age. ResultsIn fully adjusted models, mothers with prior GDM did not express greater concern about their children's body weight as compared to those without prior GDM (P = 0.50). Restriction and pressure to eat also did not differ by group, and women with prior GDM reported less monitoring of their children's intake as compared to those without prior GDM (P < 0.05). ConclusionThere is no evidence from this study that women with prior GDM are more concerned about their children's body weight or endorse more restrictive feeding practices than do those without prior GDM. Future research should investigate whether women with prior GDM are aware that their children have greater risk for obesity and comorbid health problems, and develop interventions to support parents in efforts to mitigate this risk.