Atlantic Forest Restoration Research Articles

Exploiting fruits of a threatened palm to trigger restoration of Brazil's Atlantic Forest

Recent global commitments to forest and landscape restoration in the tropics call for new management approaches that benefit both biodiversity and livelihoods of forest‐dependent people. The sustainable use of wild forest products is a promising pathway, but requires clarity about harvested species' demography and harvesters' rights. Here, we explored how the exploitation of fruits of the threatened palm Euterpe edulis, a key fruit source for wildlife in Brazil's globally important Atlantic Forest biodiversity hotspot, could trigger local community involvement in restoration. This palm has both non‐destructive (fruit) and destructive (palm heart) culinary uses, each with unique biological and resource‐use conditions. We quantified all demographic stages of this species in multiple agroforests, secondary forests, and protected areas to parameterize demographic projections of palm populations, harvest profitability, and fruit provisioning to wildlife under different management scenarios. Field observations showed a clear depression of adult palm populations in protected areas, likely due to palm heart poaching, and of intermediate size classes in agroforests, probably from weeding by farmers. Field data and demographic models reveal that in this region, agroforests and secondary forests can successfully conserve this species while providing lasting profits for farmers under most scenarios. These findings demonstrate a clear case where local stakeholders both contribute to and benefit from restoration through harvest of wild products and also highlight a potential source of income from regenerating tropical forests.

The effect of ecological restoration methods on carbon stocks in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest

Restoring degraded areas is an effective strategy to reestablish the environmental services provided by the forests including global warming mitigation by carbon sequestration. Restoring lands is especially important in the Atlantic Forest, a global hotspot in Brazil threatened by deforestation. To successfully restore degraded lands, it is necessary to apply the most suitable method for each situation. However, studies comparing restoration techniques are scarce. This lack of information hampers the Atlantic Forest restoration and, given the original complexity of its ecological dynamics, restoration success is even more challenging in this ecosystem. This study aimed to assess carbon stocks (above and belowground), carbon content (%), and carbon isotope at 5-year old sites implemented by different restoration methods in southeastern Brazil. The restoration methods tested were active restoration (AR), assisted restoration (AsR), and passive restoration in an abandoned pasture (AP), which were compared to a nearby pasture (P) and a remaining forest fragment (RF). The assessed pools were: tree, coarse roots, fine roots, herbaceous, litter, standing dead wood, fallen dead wood, and soil (0–1 cm, 5–10 cm, 10–20 cm layers). Total carbon stock was higher on RF (152.304 Mg C ha−1), followed by the P (84.378 Mg C ha−1), AR (66.414 Mg C ha−1), AsR (65.73 Mg C ha−1) and AP (65.581 Mg C ha−1). The restoration areas sites are still too young to show significant differences in total carbon stock as a result of different restoration methods. However, carbon stock and carbon content (%) differed among the pools according to the method and, in all cases, the largest carbon pool was soil, which shows the importance of sampling every pool for carbon stock and carbon content (%) estimation. Isotope analysis showed that carbon inputs in the soil had different sources, C3 or C4 plants, depending on the method. We concluded that these young secondary areas are already sequestering carbon, which helps mitigate global warming, and that monitoring every pool is important for a complete assessment, not only to restore secondary forests and understand growth but also for other land-uses such as pastures. Besides, the results obtained can be generalized to other tropical forest ecosystems with similar conditions (local and landscape), constituting a relevant contribution to forest restoration and carbon-sequestration related sciences.

Non‐continuous reproductive phenology of animal‐dispersed species in young forest restoration plantings

AbstractTree species that produce resources for fauna are recommended for forest restoration plantings to attract pollinators and seed dispersers; however, information regarding the flowering and fruiting of these species during early growth stages is scarce. We evaluated the reproductive phenology of animal‐dispersed tree species widely used in Atlantic Forest restoration. We marked 16 animal‐dispersed tree species in 3‐ to 8‐year‐old forest restoration plantings in Itu‐São Paulo, southeast Brazil. We noted the age of the first reproductive event, flowering and fruiting seasonality, percentage of trees that reached reproductive stages, and intensity of bud, flower, and fruit production for each species. Flowering and fruiting are seasonal for most species; only two, Cecropia pachystachya and Ficus guaranitica, exhibited continuous flowering and fruiting throughout the year; we also identified Schinus terebinthifolia and Dendropanax cuneatus fruiting in the dry season during resource scarcity. Therefore, we recommend all as framework species, that is, species that are animal‐dispersed with early flowering and fruiting potential, for forest restoration. Further, we recommend identifying and planting similar animal‐dispersed tree species that produce fruits constantly or in the dry season to maximize fauna resource availability throughout the year in tropical forest restoration plantings.Abstract in Portuguese is available with online material

Tree seedling responses to leaf‐cutting ants herbivory in Atlantic Forest restoration sites

AbstractLeaf‐cutting ants (LCA) are generalist herbivores capable of causing severe plant damage. Negative impacts of ant herbivory vary according to the density of nests and availability of palatable plants; however, it is not yet clear how these herbivores affect tropical forest restoration sites. To investigate how LCA preference affects plant species performance, we evaluated the herbivory of Atta sexdens rubropilosa on native tree species seedlings in Atlantic Forest restoration sites. We expected pioneer species to suffer higher herbivory by LCA when compared with non‐pioneer species and that species with higher damage will have poorer growth and higher mortality. The experiment was conducted in three restoration sites in northern Paraná state, southern Brazil, with 1,500 seedlings of 5 pioneer and 5 non‐pioneer species. Sites share similar age, stand size, tree species composition, and LCA nest density. The number of attacks, degree of leaf damage, number of leaves, plant height, and survival were recorded. Specific leaf area, leaf polyphenols, flavonoids, tannins, and nitrogen content were analyzed for each species. Plant damage was similar between pioneer and non‐pioneer plant species. This could be explained by trait variability among species in each group and by LCA generalist foraging. Preferred species suffered decreases in growth and survival. Less preferred species suffered fewer ant attacks and no change in performance. Results suggest that ant herbivory can influence plant species establishment and thus species composition in restoration sites by reducing performance and increasing mortality of some, but not all species, making LCA an important ecological filter.Abstract in Portuguese is available with online material.

There is hope for achieving ambitious Atlantic Forest restoration commitments

Achieving ambitious global restoration commitments is a huge challenge. The Atlantic Forest Restoration Pact, created in 2009 as a movement to restore 15Mha of degraded/deforested lands by 2050, pledged 1Mha towards the 2020 Bonn Challenge. We documented the restoration of an estimated 673,510–740,555ha of native forests from 2011 to 2015 in the Atlantic Forest, and expect that a total of 1.35–1.48Mha will be under recovery by 2020. The Pact is one of the first Brazilian restoration initiatives to monitor an international restoration commitment and to demonstrate that ambitious targets can be reached. Part of this success in large-scale restoration is related to three main Pact activities: (i) development of restoration governance, communication and articulation; (ii) promotion of strategies to influence public policies; and (iii) establishment of restoration monitoring systems. The experience and lessons learned by the Pact could inspire and inform other restoration initiatives worldwide.

Tree-ring formation, radial increment and climate–growth relationship: assessing two potential tree species used in Brazilian Atlantic forest restoration projects

This paper provides an overview of radial growth and tree-ring formation of two tropical tree species used in ecological restoration. It shows that trees growing in natural forests and in plantations have the same diametric growth patterns and climate responses. Understanding the outcomes of ecological restoration projects represents an important step in the conservation of endangered biomes such as the Atlantic forest in Brazil. Tree-ring analysis provides long-term information about the growth dynamics of tree species that can be used to evaluate the potential of different species for restoration projects. To evaluate the potential of using Pseudobombax grandiflorum (Cav.) A. Robyns and Citharexylum myrianthum Cham. in restoration projects in the endangered Atlantic Rain Forest (Reserva Biologica de Poco das Antas—RBPA, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil), we verified the seasonality of tree-ring formation to analyze radial growth dynamics and climate–growth relationships of these species. Cambium wounding experiments and direct anatomical analysis of the cambial zone were conducted to assess tree-ring formation periodicity. Tree-ring widths were measured to build tree-ring chronologies and to estimate radial growth rates in natural and planted areas. Both species produced annual tree rings that are produced during the wet season. Tree-ring chronologies of both species have a positive association with rainfall, but each species also responded to rainfall of a specific season. Tree-ring widths of P. grandiflorum were correlated with rainfall at the end of the previous growth season while tree-ring widths of C. myrianthum were correlated with precipitation in the beginning of the growth season. Both species have fast radial growth, but different long-term growth trends. The growth trend for Pseudobombax grandiflorum produces a positive correlation between diameter and age for the trees, while trees of Citharexylum myrianthum have an age-related growth trend and grow faster in the early years. In the present study, we confirm the success of the ecological restoration performed in RBPA as the plantation does not affect the potential growth of the studied species.

Look down—there is a gap—the need to include soil data in Atlantic Forest restoration

Consideration of soil quality indicators is fundamental for understanding and managing ecosystems. Despite the evidence regarding the importance of soil for provision of local and global ecosystem services, such as water regulation and carbon sequestration, soil remains an under‐investigated and undermined aspect of the environment. Here we evaluate to what extent soil indicators are taken into account in restoration. We focused on the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, a highly fragmented biome and a global biodiversity hotspot. We conducted a systematic literature review and we showed that the majority (59%) of the studies on restoration did not consider any soil indicator. Studies that demonstrated the importance of soil indicators most commonly reported soil pH (71%, n = 44), followed by potassium content (66%, n = 41) and phosphorus (64.5%, n = 40), while the least reported indicator was water retention (6.5%, n = 4). Only 40% of the retrieved studies included information about reference sites or project baseline information. We complement our literature review with a case study on restoration in two areas of the Atlantic Forest. We found a relation between soil indicators such as soil organic matter, nitrogen, sodium and sand content, and aboveground indicators, confirming a necessity to include soil screening in restoration. Moreover, we found that prior to restoration none of these soil indicators were analyzed. This study highlights the gap that exists in soil data in restoration in studies on the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. We urge scientists and practitioners to include basic soil analysis to maximize the successful outcomes of restoration.

Breeding system and pollination of Pleroma trichopodum DC. (Melastomataceae): a potential species for the restoration of Atlantic Forest in southern Brazil

ABSTRACT Plant-pollinator interactions and their reproductive implications are of central importance to the organization of plant populations and communities in restoration areas. We studied the breeding system and flower visitors of Pleroma trichopodum, a pioneer species of the Atlantic Forest. We attempted to answer three questions: (1) Is P. trichopodum dependent on pollinators and mates for reproduction? (2) What are the pollinators of P. trichopodum? (3) Do tree flower-density and flowering-tree density of P. trichopodum enhance the visitation rate of focal trees and their flowers? We tested the breeding system through pollination treatments. We performed focal observations on 10 trees and analyzed the relationship between tree and flower visitation rates, and the tree flower-density and flowering-tree density with Generalized Linear Mixed Models (GLMM). Pleroma trichopodum sets fruits by selfing and outcrossing, both of which occur only through pollinator visits. Bees visited P. trichopodum, and their visitation increased with tree flower-density. Thus, individuals with greater floral displays may function as magnet species, enhancing the pollination of nearby plant species. This characteristic, allied with the ability to reproduce without a mate (selfing) and a tolerance of soggy soils, make P. trichopodum a candidate for Atlantic Forest restoration.

Maximizing biodiversity conservation and carbon stocking in restored tropical forests

AbstractAssessing the conservation value of restoration plantings is critical to support the global forest landscape restoration movement. We assessed the implications of tree species selection in the restoration of Brazil's Atlantic Forest regarding carbon stocking and species conservation. This assessment was based on a comprehensive dataset of seedling acquisition records from 961 restoration projects, more than14 million seedlings, 192 forest remnants, and functional data from 1,223 tree species. We found that animal‐dispersed trees with larger seeds tend to have higher seed prices, yet are underrepresented in the seedlings acquired for restoration plantations. Compared to forest remnants, fruit supply potentially offered by the species acquired for restoration plantings is lower for birds, but higher for bats. Reduced abundance of medium‐ and/or large‐seeded, animal‐dispersed trees lead to declines of 2.8–10.6% in simulated potential carbon stocking. Given the uncertainty in these estimates, policy interventions may be needed to encourage greater representation of large‐seeded, animal‐dispersed tree species in Atlantic Forest restorations. These findings provide critical guidance for recovering tree functional diversity, plant‐frugivore mutualistic interactions, and carbon stocking in multi‐species tropical forest restoration plantings.

Environment and landscape rather than planting design are the drivers of success in long‐term restoration of riparian Atlantic forest

AbstractQuestionIdentifying the factors that lead to the success of restoration projects has been a major challenge in ecological restoration. Here we ask which factors, aside from time since restoration began, drive the recovery of tree biomass, density and richness of the understorey in riparian forests undergoing restoration.LocationSemideciduous Atlantic Forest with tropical climate and deep, fertile soils, southeast Brazil.MethodsWe sampled tree basal area (DBH ≥ 5 cm), density and richness of the understorey (DBH < 5 cm) in 26 riparian forests undergoing restoration (a chronosequence spanning 4–53 years). We assessed the following variables as possible factors, besides time, influencing community attributes: (1) planting design: density and richness of seedlings planted; (2) landscape features: proximity index measuring forest cover within a 1.5‐km radius, distance and size of the nearest forest remnant; and (3) environmental factors: invasive grasses, soil fertility, drought, average annual precipitation and proportion of fine particles in the soil. We performed correlation analyses including predictor and response variables, followed by stepwise backward regression (AIC), multiple and simple linear regressions, to investigate the relationships between those factors and the community attributes.ResultsTree basal area was primarily influenced by the proportion of small particles in the soil (+) and secondarily by rainfall (−). Understorey richness was influenced by the combination of size (+) and distance (−) of the nearest patch, rainfall (−) and soil fertility (+). Understorey density was primarily influenced by the size of the nearest forest remnant (+) and secondarily by invasive grasses (−). No influence of density or richness of the seedlings planted was observed.ConclusionEnvironmental factors and landscape configuration drive the recovery of tree biomass, density and richness in communities undergoing restoration. The most relevant ecological filters influencing restoration success are availability of soil water and nutrients and the distance and size of the nearest remnant of native vegetation. The expected influence of richness and density of seedlings planted, considered for many years as important drivers of forest restoration success, was not confirmed in this study.

Recovery of genetic diversity levels of a Neotropical tree in Atlantic Forest restoration plantations

To support the long-term ecological viability of restoration projects, it is necessary to reach adequate levels of genetic diversity in spontaneously recolonizing and reintroduced populations. The importance of genetic diversity in the long-term viability of populations is acknowledged, but still poorly monitored in restoration projects. This study aimed to estimate the genetic diversity and inbreeding levels of populations of a tree species widely used in restoration projects in the Atlantic Forest of Brazil, Centrolobium tomentosum, exploring the potential of active restoration in successfully reestablishing populations with higher chances of long-term perpetuation in agricultural landscapes. We used both nuclear and chloroplast microsatellite markers to assess genetic parameters in juveniles and adult individuals in two high-diversity restoration plantations (28 and 60years old), one disturbed fragment, and one large and well conserved protected area. We observed similar levels of genetic diversity and inbreeding, for juveniles and adults, in both restored and natural populations. Surprisingly, haplotype diversity was higher in restoration sites. We also found private alleles in juveniles in both restoration areas, and this is evidence of gene flow between restored and neighboring natural populations. However, we observed negative effects of inbreeding on the effective population size of populations from the disturbed natural remnant and restoration areas. These results provide evidence of the capacity of restoration plantations for recovering high levels of genetic diversity and the importance of maintaining large and well-conserved forest remnants to be used as seed sources for restoration efforts.

Protocol for Monitoring Tropical Forest Restoration

Monitoring protocols are needed to evaluate the millions of hectares of land that are being proposed for forest restoration in the coming decades. Standardized proposals are critical to evaluate efficacy of restoration strategies, identify triggers for corrective actions, compare results across projects, and generally learn from past projects to inform future restoration efforts. We describe an iterative process, including over 200 stakeholders, to develop a protocol for monitoring Brazilian Atlantic Forest restoration. We give an overview of the ecological, socioeconomic, and management criteria, indicators, and metrics included in the protocol. Strengths of the protocol include the following: (a) testing and use across sites with a range of ages, forest types, past land uses, restoration techniques, and implementing institutions; (b) participation by a broad range of government, nongovernment, private, and academic institutions in the protocol development process; and (c) inclusion of socioeconomic and management criteria. Next steps for facilitating the broad adoption of the protocol in the Atlantic Forest region include providing in person and online training courses, establishing an online repository for storing and comparing monitoring data, and developing smartphone applications to facilitate data collection. Although the protocol was developed for the Atlantic Forest context and further refinements are needed, we think that the Atlantic Forest Pact monitoring protocol may serve as a model to inform the development of similar protocols in other regions, which ultimately could be integrated to produce a pantropical protocol for common use by several restoration forest programs worldwide.

Annual changes in a bird assembly on artificial perches: Implications for ecological restoration in a subtropical agroecosystem

Artificial perches are used in tropical forest restoration projects to increase the dispersal of seeds into restored areas. The ability of perches to enhance seed deposition depends on their ability to attract seed dispersing birds, as well as the correlation between the season of bird visits to perches and the phenology of fruit production in adjacent forests. Using data collected from a large-scale restoration project, we characterized the community of birds that utilize artificial perches over the course of one year. We hypothesized that the structure of a bird assemblage that uses artificial perches is affected by seasonal variation. We aimed to describe the richness, abundance and diversity of a bird assemblage on artificial perches in a subtropical Atlantic forest restoration experiment in Southern Brazil. Richness and abundance estimates of the avian fauna were obtained from eight artificial perches placed in four experimental plots (∼2 y-old). Parameters of richness and abundance were compared using ANOVA. The bird assemblage was described using SHE analysis [richness (S), diversity (H') and evenness (E)], with additional estimates of occurrence and dominance. In total, 451 records of 32 ± 3.16 SD species were obtained. Thraupidae was the most numerous family (nine species, 28.12% of the total). Richness and abundance varied seasonally and were highest during spring and summer. Five migratory species of flycatchers were recorded between spring and early autumn. Perches were ineffective in attracting specialized frugivorous birds, emphasizing that seed dispersal tends to be carried out primarily by generalist omnivores in the initial phase of forest regeneration.

Ecological outcomes of Atlantic Forest restoration initiatives by sugar cane producers

Brazilian environmental law (the Forest Code) compels large landowners to conserve a proportion of forest on their properties, often necessitating restoration of degraded habitat. Sugar cane producers have been active participants in these restoration projects, especially in the northeast region where sugar cane has largely replaced the exceptionally biodiverse Atlantic forest. Despite the potential conservation importance of such restoration projects there have been few evaluations of their outcomes. Here, we assess sugar cane company restoration projects in an Atlantic rainforest region of northeast Brazil. Specifically, we assess the ability of restoration projects to: (i) restore species diversity and vegetation structure; (ii) increase connectivity between forest fragments, and; (iii) restore assemblage composition. Restored areas contained approximately half the species richness of remnant fragments and had a substantially different species composition. Moreover, the density of trees in restored areas was a third of that in remnants, despite a very similar height profile. The currently poor outcomes of Atlantic Forest restoration projects in northeast Brazil are a consequence of a severely limited capacity for natural regeneration and poor restoration practices. We conclude by identifying possible strategies to improve the quality of privately financed restoration projects.

Survival, growth and seed mass in a mixed tree species planting for Atlantic Forest restoration

Selection of tree species is a key aspect of restoration in megadiverse biomes such as the Atlantic Forest, especially in degraded areas with past intensive land use, which usually present severe limiting conditions. The species must have high survival and growth, not only in the transition between germination and seedling but also between seedling and adult plant until allowing the establishment of a self-sustaining and renewable community. In order to reach this goal, restoration initiatives carried out in the Atlantic Forest have employed high-diversity plantings of tree species from different successional guilds. Notwithstanding, long-term silvicultural knowledge is scarce for the native species from this biome, and the effectiveness of these models is controversial. Our investigation has compared the survival and growth of species and guilds in high-diversity tree species plantings in areas with previous agricultural intensive use. The species and guilds were also compared with respect to seed mass since this parameter is pointed out as an indicator of high survival in early stages. Pioneer and secondary species did not present differences in survival and seed mass, although pioneers exhibited greater growth rate. The late successional (LS) species had lower survival and growth, and higher seed mass. Survival after 8 months and between 8–15 months after seedling planting was inversely correlated with seed mass (r2 = 0.35 and r2 = 0.36, P < 0.001). On the other hand, survival after 8 months was correlated with relative growth rate (RGR) in the same periods of time (r2 = 0.34, P < 0.001). Overall average survival was 41% after 15 months, with the survival of LS species at an average of 12%. Data suggests that the inclusion of LS seedlings could impair the efficacy of restoration during early phases, at least in highly degraded areas. Equally, the inclusion of species with high seed mass should be considered with caution.

Factors influencing early secondary succession and ecosystem carbon stocks in Brazilian Atlantic Forest

Ecologically relevant restoration of secondary Atlantic forest on abandoned land offers a potential means to recover biodiversity and improve crucial ecosystem services, including carbon sequestration. Early secondary successional trajectories are determined by a range of environmental factors that influence plant community development. Context-specific understanding of forest vegetation communities, their dynamics, and underlying drivers is needed for future restoration strategies. In this study we examined relationships between soil (chemical and physical) and environmental (landscape and topographical) characteristics, plant community attributes, and carbon stocks during early secondary succession. Data were collected at two sites undergoing early secondary succession in seasonally-dry Atlantic Forest (Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil). Both sites were previously used for pasture and abandoned at similar times, but showed differing vegetation communities. We found tree biomass and diversity and ecosystem carbon storage to be strongly positively related to the amount of surrounding forest, less steep slopes and clay soils, and negatively to the abundance of the shrub Leandra aurea. Soil carbon pools significantly increased with aboveground tree biomass. The only factor significantly affecting the metric of overall successional development (combining tree biomass and diversity) was total surrounding forest cover. Our findings suggest recovery of secondary forest and below- and aboveground carbon storage is limited by the amount of adjacent forest, some soil properties and dense shrub establishment down-regulating the succession process. Overall we offer evidence of potential to improve recovery of Atlantic forest with ecologically relevant seeding/planting programmes and selective shrub removal that could benefit ecosystem carbon storage.

Atlantic Forest spontaneous regeneration at landscape scale

The Atlantic Forest suffered five centuries of continuous deforestation related to successive economic cycles, and is now reduced to 11.7 % of its original cover. The Atlantic Forest Restoration Pact was launched in 2009 and aims to restore 15 million hectares until 2050. Natural regeneration can play an important role in meeting this target, however little attention has been paid to this process and there is a gap in the knowledge about its driving factors at the landscape scale. We mapped forest cover of an Atlantic Forest municipality in Southeastern Brazil, in five timeslots between years 1978 and 2014, and used the weights of evidence method for modeling its spatial dynamics, in order to understand where natural regeneration is occurring and which are the main factors related to this phenomenon. In 36 years, forest cover increased 3,020 hectares (15.3 %), related to the decreasing of both rural population (R2 = 0.9794, p = 0.0013) and cropland cover (R2 = 0.8679, p = 0.0212). Landscape metrics shows the increment of number of fragments and structural connectivity among them. The main spatial variables influencing forest cover dynamics were topographic position, slope, solar radiation, soil type and distance to forest, urban areas and roads. Secondary forests provide ecosystem services that can turn into economic benefits, and natural regeneration can reduce restoration costs to the municipality. The cost of active restoration of the same area would have meant a total expense of U$ 15.1 million (U$ 419 k/year). We show here that spontaneous regeneration must be accounted for and incorporated into the spatial planning of Atlantic Forest restoration.

Phylogenetic patterns of Atlantic forest restoration communities are mainly driven by stochastic, dispersal related factors

Phylogenetic ecology complements trait-based analysis on community assembly by considering that species are not independent units but are related to each other by their evolutionary history. Phylogenetic patterns clustered when there are more close relatives than expected by chance or overdispersed with less close relatives than expected. Patterns among species in a community indicate underlying biotic and abiotic processes acting on species functional traits. However, phylogenetic ecology has seldom been applied to forest restoration. We used floristic and abundance data from six forest restoration sites of different ages and four old-growth reference forests in the Brazilian Atlantic forest to evaluate similarities in phylogenetic patterns between restoration and reference forests as a measure of restoration success. The presence of an initial tree canopy in restoration forests conducted by planting species increases seed dispersal. Nevertheless, we expected random phylogenetic patterns early in restoration due to dispersal limitation in a highly fragmented landscape. As time since planting increases and in reference forests, we expected less of an effect of dispersal on community composition and more of an effect of negative biotic interactions among close relatives to lead to overdispersed patterns. We did not find a clear trajectory showing that restoration sites would resemble the phylogenetic patterns of reference sites with age since planting. We found significant clustering patterns in two sites, the oldest restoration site and one reference forest. The other reference forests showed, non-significant yet clustering tendencies. The functional traits studied were less conserved than expected by chance, therefore, we cannot relate clustering to be solely the result of environmental filters leading to the presence of close relatives with similar habitat requirements. The presence of closely related species in the Meliaceae family in reference forests and in the oldest restoration site, which was next to a forest remnant, points toward dispersal as the main factor driving phylogenetic patterns in the sites studied. Despite the use of a high number of planted species, differences in the composition of planted species among sites also affected the observed phylogenetic structure. We believe that phylogenetic ecology complements floristic studies by providing information on trait conservatism and shedding light on community assembly processes that affect the successional trajectory of restoration forest.

Animal-dispersed pioneer trees enhance the early regeneration in Atlantic Forest restoration plantations

Planting of native trees has been adopted in many tropical regions worldwide as a central forest restoration method, but little is known concerning the role that these planted species play in catalyzing forest regeneration beneath their canopies. We investigated the role of animal-dispersed tree species in catalyzing the regeneration of woody species in the understory of restoration plantings. We assessed both the density and richness of tree seedlings within plots located beneath the canopy of both animal-dispersed and abiotic-dispersed tree species planted in three riparian forest restoration sites with ages of five, six and eight years. The proportion of animal-dispersed tree seedlings increased with plantation age. The richness of animal-dispersed tree seedlings was higher beneath animal-dispersed trees in the eight-year-old planting. The density of animal-dispersed tree seedlings was higher under animal-dispersed trees when sites were analyzed altogether. The top three species in regeneration density beneath the canopy were animal-dispersed trees, and from the top ten, seven were animal-dispersed species. We suggest that animal-dispersed pioneer trees which facilitate natural regeneration and promote a high density and richness of woody species beneath their canopies should be considered as “framework” species for tropical forest restoration.

Identifying the habitat filters to medium and large mammal recolonization in Atlantic Forest restoration

Identifying the habitat filters to medium and large mammal recolonization in Atlantic Forest restoration